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#7
Exploring the Depths of Racial Profiling
By
Maria Medina
ADED 5260
Exploring the Depths of Racial Profiling
Two Los Angeles police officers were cruising the city's highways when they saw a black man who looked as if he might
be a drug dealer. So, they pulled over his car, only to discover that their suspect was Christopher Darden, co-prosecutor
in the O.J. Simpson trial.
The cops cheerfully waved Darden on, but he was not amused. Speaking at a recent forum in San Francisco, Darden said
he found such incidents demeaning and humiliating, and he accused the police of routinely stopping black men in the belief
that they are potential criminals. Just about every one I know has been stopped- ministers, doctors, lawyers and professional
athletes, he said. (Souza 2007).
In response to the above scenario, law enforcement officers claim that profiling is a critical component of their day
to day work in catching criminals. African Americans on the other hand believe they are pulled over simply because they were
driving while black.
These situations tend to be increasing as time goes on. The American Civil Liberties Union has reported increasing evidence
of police stops that were racially motivated. Not only are these incidents increasing but there are a few members of both
Congress and State Legislators that are proposing that this practice be made illegal. With all of the pros and cons involved
in the topic of racial profiling, there are several areas that need to be discussed in order to see the picture clearer.
For a thorough understanding, one must know the appropriate definition of racial profiling, explore evidence that racial profiling
exists, and assess the topic of police discretion.
According to the United States Department of Justice, there has been a steady decline in the crime rate in almost every
community in America over the past eight years. While this seems like a great sign of crime prevention and effective law
enforcing, the tension and distrust between the communities and the police remain at a high level. It is said that one of
the biggest causes of these trust issues, include the problematic process of racial profiling.
In the law enforcement code of ethics, officers are not supposed to act upon stereotypes, attitudes, or beliefs that a
person's race, ethnicity, or national origin increases that person's general propensity to act unlawfully (Ramirez, 2000).
How then, is racial profiling defined to accommodate those restrictions? Although racial profiling has had many versions
of definition, for this purpose, racial profiling can be defined as any type of police-initiated action that relies on the
race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than the actual behavior of the individual or critical information that leads law
enforcement to someone who has been identified or has been involved in criminal activity.
Within the scope of that definition, there are two principles that have been mentioned. The first is that police may
not use racial or ethnic stereotypes as factors in selecting whom to stop and search and the second is that police may use
race or ethnicity to determine whether a person matches a specific description of a particular subject (Ramirez, 2000).
After reviewing the initial definition of racial profiling and the two underlying principles, one can assess that there
is a very fine line that can be interpreted either one way or the other depending on the situation and the interpreter.
Upon coming to the prior conclusion, research of concrete evidence of racial profiling should be discussed. A 1999 report
by David Harris, Driving While Black: Racial Profiling on our Nations Highways, cites numerous accounts of poor treatment
to minorities by police from several different state and local jurisdictions.
It has been made clear that the only real source of evidence of racial profiling comes from personal accounts or stories
that have been turned in. Within these reports several situations have come up. One is that there is a concern that policemen
are stopping drivers because they or the passengers do not match the type of car they are driving.
Another complaint that seems to be re occurring is when police stop people of color driving through all white neighborhoods.
The ultimate most common complaint by community members of color is that they are being stopped for petty violations like
under inflated tires, failure to properly signal while switching lanes, vehicle equipment failures, speeding ten or less miles
above the speed limit, or having an illegible license plate (Ramirez, 2000).
It is obvious that these are only representations of the thousands of personal accounts that have been documented in newspapers,
interviews etc. and that there is no real proof of officers engaging actively in racial profiling. This finding leads us
to the assessment of police discretion.
The ability of police agencies to identify and address problem officers is necessary to an effective response to a finding
of racial profiling. There are though, a few issues involved in assessing actual police discretion. Within the trainings
of the Criminal Justice undergraduate degrees, students are told that police officers actually have one hundred percent discretion
on a case by case basis.
Many officers have spoken of the difficulty in quantifying the decision to stop (Ramirez, 2000). Officers have several
options for factors in the decision to stop a vehicle.
While this is a topic that is so hard to measure, there has been new talk of implementing policies to track changes over
time. These policies would include regularly collecting information on the characteristics of traffic stops. This would
be an attempt at measuring community by community, types of stops, races of stops, numbers of stops and changes over time.
The wide spread perception among people of color that they are unfairly targeted by the police because of their race has
led to a lack of trust in the police. This mistrust is said to harm both the police and the communities of color by intruding
on effective police work.
It is true that communities of color need effective policing. They are in fact more likely than whites to be victims
of crime. Mistrust of the police interferes with this goal because people are less likely to cooperate by reporting crimes
or helping in investigations.
After defining racial profiling, exploring evidence that racial profiling exists, and assessing the topic of police discretion,
one can only conclude that the issue of racial profiling is an ever growing one. Not only is it hard to validate the accounts
of racial profiling but police have such a wide variety of options to choose from when accounting for why they have stopped
motorists.
The closest we can come to trying for change is by implementing policies that measure traffic violations from community
to community and recording trends over time. Only at that time would we have a good picture of what is really going on.
References
1. Souza, Dinesh, 2007 in The Problem of Racial Profiling is exaggerated. (www.bookrags.com)
2. Harris, David, 1999 in Driving while Black: Racial Profiling on our Nations Highways Washington, DC: American Civil
Liberties Union, 1999.
3. Ramirez, Deborah, 2000 in A Resource Guide on Racial Profiling Data Collection Systems Promising Practices and Lessons
Learned. New Jersey: North Eastern University, November 2000
#9
Running Head: Summary of Assigned Readings
Directed Professional Study
A Glimpse at the Beginning of the Adult Education Movement
Maria Medina
University of Wyoming
Department of Adult Learning and Technology
ADED 5490: Directed Professional Study
Dr. Michael Day
Spring 2009
A Glimpse at the Beginning of the Adult Education Movement
As a canidate for a Masters of Arts degree, with concentration in Adult Education, one would think that the history of
the adult education movement would be a part of the vessel of knowledge acquired over the two year period of achieving such
a degree. While this vessel of knowledge is filled with information pertaining to learning and instruction, the general foundations,
and leadership and practices within the field of adult education, it was not until the final semester of this degree that
the history of the adult education movement was covered. While this seems absurd, it is only in the nick of time that I was
able to enrich myself with such pertinent information. While quite honestly, a good majority of what I have read was brand
new information to me.
I can only begin this summary by first stating that I have found, through this reading, that historically, the idea of
whether or not adults are an integral part of the education system has caused considerable debate for centuries. It seems
as though this contention over the importance of adults in higher education has been ever prevalent, as well as the difference
between teaching adults and teaching youth. One can definitely see the differences in the two learning groups but the idea
of adults needing or wanting to learn, has been somewhat of a silent concept. Now, as the rates of adult students increase,
more attention to reaching these populations is being paid. This can be due to several reasons including, increase in leisure
time, a desire to learn the technological advances occuring in a fast paced system or just the need for education in order
to maintain or advance in current positions. This trend can also be related to the tendency for individuals to go through
several career changes within their lifetime as opposed to the earlier half of the last century, when one would typically
remain in their profession for most of their life. While it seems as though a general consensus today is that adults are
becoming an ever increasing and meaningful part of the educational sector, there was a beginning point to this discussion.
This leads us to the question of when and where the first conscious adult education movement formed in the United States?
According to Day (1993) the 1920's were not only dynamic but a pivotal period in the history of adult education. At the
center stage of this period of time was the American Association for Adult Education (AAAE), which was established in 1926.
This association started with a few educators that believed that the goal of education was growth and that this should be
a lifelong endeavor, if the concept of democracy was ever to be achieved. This concept of democracy included equal access
to educational opportunities and a connection to citizenry. The particular event that was the prequel to a conscious movement
in adult education was a gathering convened by the Carnegie Corporation in New York, NY. President Frederick Keppel, of the
Carnegie Corporation, addressed twenty three others in the question of adult education, by letter on June 6, 1924. As a result
of this letter, on June 18th, 1924, thirteen of twenty three invitees, attended the first official meeting on the question
of adult education. The next question would be why did these individuals feel that a conscious movement of adult education
was needed?
Day (1993) states that Major themes emerged at Keppel's meeting that would guide the movement throughout the 1920's(p
22). While these members showed two consistent beliefs that education could ennoble life and that an educated citizenry was
vital to democratic society, Day (1993) contends that the most prominent was that adult education should concern itself with
learning for life(cultural and personal enrichment) rather than learning for livelihood(vocational training). The values
involved in guiding these initial years of the adult education movement included the idea that this form of education was
liberal, which was considered to be the broadening of cultural knowledge and sensitivity. They also viewed men and women
as responsible for improving themselves and their culture, rather than just being passive spectators.
While this movement had several sources for inspiration, there were some very intriguing initial leaders of the movement
whom had several inspirational viewpoints to add to the agenda of adult education in the United States. Some of the initial
leaders of the movement that stood out to me were:
Frederick Keppel,The Catalyst for the movement had a great way of stating that adult education may not be a bad way to
manifest the spirit of democracy. JAE 7(1):11 (seemed to have financial focus and preliminary studies on his agenda for adult
Ed)
Leon Richardson (selected as chair of the AAAE), The apostle of lifelong learning viewed educational activity as a vital
process and is shown by seeing how it develops a man in his early years, enriches him in his prime and supports him in his
age; seeing how it builds a well ordered state and brings civilization to flower. JAE 1(2): 141
James Russell (Vice), The Dean of Adult Education felt that the best part of education comes from contact with life. JAE
5(2):152
Morse Cartwright (Executive Director),Considered the Executor of the Movement,felt that this educational movement seeks
to impress upon the public consciousness the basic idea of mind expansion as an important part of the necessary business of
a complete life. JAE 1(4):459
Arthur Bestor (member)-This Chautauqua Man says that continual adjustment, ability to change one's occupation in middle
life, adaptability, and versatility are the results that must be achieved through education. (JAE) 6(2):154
Margaret Burton (member) known as voice for the Y, felt that then the entire national life, the whole civilization, is
the missionary message. Ultimately to help women no matter what the age, to understand and realize in their own experience
that any age is good for learning something new. The Woman's Press (May 1929):305
Everett Martin (member) The tireless critic who says that in adult education the curriculum is built around the students
needs and interests. That life becomes rational, meaningful, as we learn to be intelligent about the things that happen to
us. JAE 6(3):34 (seemed to have the idea of humanizing the work of the library on his agenda for adult Ed)
Spencer Miller, Jr. (member) the man for labor and leisure who says that experience is the result of some action, something
done and that doing is an important condition of learning. JAE 1(4):382 (linking the world of culture and the world of labor
seemed to be on his agenda for adult Ed)
John Puelicher (member) the banking connection said it best by saying that education should be represented in the cabinet
of our President. NEA Addresses and Proceedings, 57:51
While Eduard Lindeman is considered the super star of the movement, I chose to include his importance in an entirely separate
paragraph. Words just can not explain the depth to this man. Eduard Lindeman stimulated conversations of adult education
more than sixty years ago. His role in the early years of the adult education movement permeate the 1920's and 30's. Not
only did he serve as a member of the advisory committee for adult education with the Carnegie Corporation from 1924-26, publish
The Meaning of Adult Education in 1926, move on to the executive board of the A.A.A.E from 1926-1931 but he has published
204 articles, 107 book reviews, 5 books, 16 monographs and 17 chapters in other works. Lindeman explains that adult education
should be one that does not require an entrance or exit requirement but those adults as learners should attend their classes
voluntarily and will leave whenever the standard of interest is failed to be met. The Meaning of Adult Education, p.20. Lindeman
(1989) goes on to say instead of indoctrinating students with a preconceived standard of what constitutes good music, painting,
literature etcetera, it will begin by discovering what individuals genuinely enjoy. And, if reeducated adults happen to enjoy
something which the academicians frown upon, there will be no apologies. (p. 66)
Ultimately, I find the entire start of the conscious movement of adult education interesting; however, the most interesting
of it all, is the depth to the people involved. There seemed to be a genuine interest in the overall well being of not only
society but individuals themselves. I suppose this would make the most sense. In order to have a healthy society, individuals
must first be healthy. The same would be true from an educational perspective. I am extremely impressed and affected by
the writing of Eduard Lindeman but after reading this manual, I can see just how many other people were not only involved
in the process but just as passionate about the issue. I can see Lindemans view that the whole of life is learning and therefore
education can have no endings. As an end result, I believe that for most of these members of the movement, the main objective
of adult education is to end up with a more enlightened confident and responsive public. This appeared to be such a selfless
movement, this in itself is both interesting and inspiring.
References
Day, M. (1993). The movement for adult education in the United States: grasping at an ideal. HyperCard Stack 2.1 (Macintosh)
Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming.
Lindeman, E. (1989). The meaning of adult education. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma. (First published in 1926)
#11
Running Head: Law Definition
Appreciating Legality
Maria Medina
University of Wyoming
Law Definition
Appreciating Legality
It will be a desirable thing to extinguish from the bosom of every member of the community any apprehensions, that there
are those among his country men who wish to deprive them of the liberty for which they valiantly fought and honorably bled
(Madison, J. 1789).
As one can sit and mentally process the freedom he or she has for life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, one would
think that the mental consideration of the law that governs every day life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness would come
into play. After all, the men and women of this country are governed by laws on a daily basis. At the same time these laws
could be called translucent. Translucent because it seems as though the mental process of law in general rarely happens on
its own. It seems as though the population that mentally processes the law include those in study of or those in trouble
with. So, we have a nation of people that go day to day working, going to school, paying bills, having children, raising
families and obeying the law. We also have those who do not work, do not raise their children, do not contribute to society
and ultimately continue to break the law.
As we take a step back into time, we see that the great founding fathers somehow thought of all of the chaos that could
happen and decided to do something about it. While the creation of these laws would help deal with those who would be disorderly
and thus create a system of consequences, those who created such restrictions and consequences were also thought of, in respect
to avoiding the misconstruction or abuse of its powers. In essence, we, the American people ended up today with what we know
as Law. In researching and studying the topic of law in America, one must adequately define law itself, assess the United
States Constitution and then use the two to come up with a satisfactory balance of how this law works in ones favor.
While there are countless offerings of the definition of law, for this purpose, only a handful of examples will be discussed.
Law implies imposition by a sovereign authority and the obligation of obedience on the part of all subject to that authority
(Merriam, 2008). As this definition states the very basic aspects of law, there are so many areas that could come up for
discussion. Questions range from who actually governs all sovereign authorities and if all under one sovereign authority
must abide by another sovereign authority to in fact, who actually reins supreme? These questions are only simple examples
of how cloudy the water of law could actually be.
Could the definition of law actually differ for separate entities? I would have to say, after extending some research
on the issue, that the answer to that question is yes. I will only provide a couple of examples, as this could get lengthy.
Law in general has been stated as a rule of being or of conduct, established by an authority able to enforce its will; a
controlling regulation; the mode or order according to which an agent or a power acts. When this definition is taken further
and applied to other areas, watch it change. Lets look at law in Morals: The will of God as the rule for the conduct of
all responsible beings toward him. In looking at law as a rule in Philosophy and Physics- A rule of being so certain and
constant that it is conceived as imposed by the will of God. Law in Mathematics: The rule according to which anything as
the change value of a variable proceeds; mode or order of sequence. Law in Arts: The rules of construction, conforming to
the conditions of success; a principle, maxim; or usage.
Collectively, law is the whole body of rules relating to one subject, or emanating from one source; including the writings
pertaining to them and judicial proceedings under them; as divine law; English law; Roman law; etc. (Ardictionary). After
gaining a somewhat thorough understanding of the broad but consistent definition of law, one can start assessing where these
laws come from and how they are maintained.
Without spending countless hours discussing the United States Constitution, the contents and procedures can really be
broken down and put into perspective in a simple way. We can all reflect back to our High School Civics class and remember
the three main branches of government being the Legislative, the Executive and the Judicial. After researching the topic,
it is safe to say that the Legislative branch is responsible for making the laws, the Executive branch is responsible for
making the laws official and/or enforcement of the laws and the judicial branch both oversees the court system of the United
States and interprets the laws. The other facets of the United States Constitution do touch on important areas such as states
vs. states, amendments, debts, supremacy, oaths, ratifications and signatures.
When looking at law, I feel that some of the most important aspects of the Constitution are the amendments themselves.
The very fact that the United States Constitution is fluid and allows amendments makes me feel secure in the law making process.
When looking through all of the amendments such as freedom of religion, right to bear arms, judicial limits, Slavery abolished,
women's suffrage etc., I am confident that nothing is forever the way it is. There is always an opportunity as the people
to try and get something heard and even changed. I feel that this in itself is the beauty of our sovereign government. We
the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide
for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, to
ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America (Preamble). In defining law itself and assessing
the United States Constitution, which states all aspects of the sovereign government, I can now begin to sit and reflect on
how this system works satisfactorily for my self.
The best way to put my conclusion of this process is an open door legislation. From the federal government perspective,
we have those who create, enact and interpret the laws that trickle down into the state governments. The state government
takes those laws and adds some of their own and those trickle down to the local governments. Lastly, the local governments
add their own laws and finally, the common people choose whether to comply or not. Those decisions ultimately end in consequential
action.
There are several ways that laws satisfactorily work for me as an individual. On the most basic level, the criminal laws
definitely help to protect me from the unlawful citizens roaming about the community. At another level, laws that help protect
my health and the health of others such as clean indoor air or seat belt regulations are not only necessary but usually wanted
by most. We, as Americans even have the right to publicly say our views and opinions as loud as we want to on a street corner,
as long as no profanity is used. With only a few of these rights in mind, I feel that there is a well balanced level of laws
and rights in the United States of America.
All in all, I have been completely intrigued with my study of law and the flash back to my High School Civics class.
As a twenty nine year old adult, I have strayed from thinking about law or any of the related issues for close to five years.
(Since obtaining my Bachelors in Criminal Justice and occupying a position that is not related) After completing this assignment,
I have revisited just why I was interested in law in the first place. Also, I can honestly say that not only do I feel that
I have an adequate understanding of how law and related systems operate but I can now feel confident elaborating on the subject.
References
Ardictionary www.ardicitionary.com/law/
Madison, J. (1789) www.jmu.edu/madison/center
Merriam (2008) - www.merriam-webster.com
Preamble www.usconstitution.net
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#8
Running head: Reaching Disparate Populations
Adult Education in Civil Society: Reaching Disparate Populations
Maria Medina
University of Wyoming
Adult Education in Civil Society: Reaching Disparate Populations
As we dive into the twenty first century, we can fairly say that the world, more specifically the United States of America,
has undergone significant change over the years. Some would argue that in certain areas, the change has been both positive
and negative; however, within the field of education, one can assess that a progression, even if slow, does exist. Encompassed
in the topic of education, is the field of adult education.
The field of adult education has evolved to its present form and continues to evolve and shape itself as the demands of
the culture change. It is true that as we move slowly towards an economy that places high reliability on well trained workforce,
the human resource department's professionals seem to overshadow the needs of the illiterate and disenfranchised. There seems
to be an ongoing debate between those that feel that adult education should be geared towards shaping society through the
fostering of democracy solely versus those who have a more diverse approach that encompasses adult learning in many different
venues. Earlier generations seemed to seek adult education for means of liberation through initiatives, like voter registration
and education. With the needs of todays generation, which require life-long learning for the rapidly changing market place,
one must find a happy medium. One could say that a compromise of the two would naturally be giving the learners, themselves,
the freedom to choose what they need to learn at specific times in their life. Conversations addressing this very issue have
shown that the narrowing of this field, to only include one philosophy over another, would only deny others opportunity and
choice.
Controversy will indeed always exist; at times the controversy has been evoked among adult education professionals as
the field has evolved and branched in multiple directions. While the two positions mentioned earlier can either compliment
one another or contradict one another, the ever growing population of the United States becomes more diverse by the day.
This diversity stands to include race, gender, culture, class and several other sub groups. For the purposes of this paper,
the focus will remain on the cultural context of civil society in adult education.
Several studies help clarify the vital role that the education and enlightenment of adults plays in the continuing success
of a democratic society, which indeed is the foundation of this country. While looking at adult education in civil society
and addressing disparate populations, one must consider civil society and citizenship, immigrant students in adult and higher
education, and exploring roles of adult educators in civil society.
As we approach the third millennium, the process of globalization is in full swing, a huge process that comes with its
own imperative for fundamental change and which confronts societies with a number of difficult choices. This country has
not only a growing pressure to remain competitive and flexible to ensure economic growth but also a need to maintain and enhance
political freedoms and social cohesion. We have started to see a decline in the welfare state, in a sense of community, increase
of unemployment and income inequities at its fullest extreme.
This situation could lead one to claim sight of a re-emergence of Social Darwinism and clear manifestations of the atrophy
of social capital, social cohesion and a weakening of the civil society. One would ask, why then, would people from other
countries seek this country out?
In An Essay on Civil Society, Professor Bryan Massam explores the depth of literature on the civil society and illuminates
both the contemporary and historical constructions. Historically, the space or gap between the individual and the state in
western countries has been defined by the importance/legitimacy of the civil society. Dahrendorf* (1995, 23) argues that the
core meaning of this concept is very precise;Civil society describes the associations in which we conduct our lives, and that
owe their existence to our needs and initiatives, rather than to the state. This being said, we can take an in depth look
at why there is a shrinking space for citizenship in civil society.
One question that seems to appear over and over: Can adult educators really retain their ability to engage in a critical
educational process when the space for democracy and participation is slowly shrinking? In An essay on Class and Cultural
Hegemony in back-to-the-land Communities; MA student, Amish Morrell, explores class privilege afforded to these back- to-
the landers, those who came of age within the 1960s, who tried to escape the alienation of urban industrial society and to
seek simple, self-sufficient life styles close to nature. Morrell* (1999, 5) has argued that it could be simple, by looking
at how social movements and counter cultures constitute themselves, both materially and ideally- how they give their ideals
and practices felt meaning we can better understand how we can more actively participate in and transform society. While this
is all great in theory, we are still left with the issue of citizenship.
We can not get away from the fact that we are the melting pot of the world. Even so, Barriers to citizenship for people
exist on many levels, including legal, political, educational (through segregation and streaming), community participation,
and employment. Gorman (1999, 2). This leaves adult education on a back burner and places general barriers to common citizenship
in the forefront. This brings us to another question. How do we help change and improve civil society, with internal barriers
as mentioned earlier? It is obvious that the issue of higher education for undocumented residents is not unique to one specific
state but varies from state to state. While this debate is a heated one, many valid arguments can be made in support of providing
post-secondary education to undocumented residents. Marco Zarate, President of the North Carolina Society of Hispanic Professionals,
stated in recent media coverage of the immigrant debate in North Carolina, The benefit of education goes far beyond this student
that we are talking about. It goes far beyond their families. The reach of that benefit goes out to the whole state. You
have more productive citizens. When you have dropouts, for example, the possibility that they are going to be a burden for
this society increases exponentially.
In an article on Immigration and Nationalism in Canada: Issues for Citizenship Education, PHD student, Pat Durish, discusses
learning for citizenship on a specific level in identifying the various sites and processes through which learning for citizenship
takes place, we also need to be concerned with how the categories of race, class and gender come together to inform a particular
individual's experience of becoming a Canadian citizen Durish (1999, 3). This should be held consistent for other areas,
ideally the entire United States. While we continue to watch the United States landscape change demographically, due to the
powerful force from immigration, we need to seriously consider improving our civil society as it is, rather than spending
so much energy and resources on the negative issue of stopping immigration all together. In an article on What do We Know
About Immigrant Students in Adult and Higher Education, Mary Alfred discusses in great detail the relationship between higher
education and immigration. As noted, the United States has seen several important demographic changes since the last Immigration
Act of 1965. These changes, in turn, hold consequences that are highly relevant to adult and higher education institutions
that provide services to immigrant students. Immigrants also bring a large array of needs and educational aspiration, as
well as achievements and qualifications to adult and higher education. These diverse qualities create a challenge for instructors
to structure learning activities so as to make the experiences of the foreign-born student more visible and to use these experiences
as opportunities for learning. Alfred(2005, 6)
So, the issue of higher education and civil society, whether addressing citizenship or immigration, presents an interesting
topic for debate. Amidst all of the questionable theory and practice are the adult educators themselves. There is emerging
evidence of a contemporary growth of adult learning within civil society, that public space which is independent of the state(Krygier
1996, 14). Within this space of learning, are adult educators who are forced to re assess their practices and teaching procedures
to accommodate these changing times. There has been significant study on the trend of literature on adult educators roles
connecting philosophical beliefs about adult education and the type of role described. Cunningham (1996) supports the radical
tradition in adult education by arguing that adult educators should work in socially responsible and relevant ways to actively
promote continuous societal change by promoting the ideals of participatory democracy, defined as full citizen participation,
freedom, equality, and social justice. Within her exploration of adult educator roles for a civil society, full citizen participation
is placed at the forefront of several topics. It is interesting to know that full citizen participation does not touch on
residents of the United States but not yet fully accounted citizens either. This brings the very issue of adult learning
in civil society, with focus on citizenship and immigration to a screeching halt.
As an adult educator, one could be left in a no-mans land, wondering which population to take the time to incorporate
these issues into. Do they use the teaching mechanism and try to evolve with the changing society or stick to regulatory
practices, only including United States citizens as the primary focus group? In an article on Adult Learning in Civil Society,
Exploring Roles for Adult Educators, Professor Rennie Johnston attempts to explore the range and extent of adult learning
that goes on in civil society and reviews the role of the adult educator in relation to this. I have argued that there are
still useful and supportive roles for adult educators in relation to learning and action within civil society. However, in
order to identify and develop these, adult educators, both researchers and teachers, need to avoid the danger of radical rhetoric
allied to essentially conservative institutional practice. While we need to maintain a critical focus on social purpose adult
learning in the interests of a fairer and more equitable society, we should also be more modest in our immediate aims, more
flexible in our partnerships and more reflexive in our praxis Johnston* (1998, 4).
All in all we can fairly say that the United States of America is evolving at faster rates than any other country, in
regards to cultural diversity. While some may argue that this is definitely not a good set up and that we are headed toward
chaos, it is obvious that every culture needs further education. Within these cultures are some who seek to grow with the
changing times and stay in touch with American civil society. Then there are also those who are just working to live and
living to work. Current adult educators then, have the difficult task of planning their instructional objectives around reaching
all of these populations. Many arguments have been made that social change is even made feasible by cultural change. This
would mean that as adult educators, we can not ignore the needs of individuals in the work place as well. A consequence of
this is that social change can and should take place within the institutions that people exist. While many say that this
education or adult educator functions are now being handled by Human Resource departments, we really need to eliminate those
tasks from that field and try something else.
I deeply believe that all human beings can be aided to become increasingly self-reliant and autonomous, that the most
important single principle is that the learner be fully engaged, and that the main goal of adult learning is to develop men
and women who are, at the same time, compassionately sensitive and tough minded Lindeman (1956). While addressing adult education
in civil society and reaching disparate populations, one has to consider all areas of civil society and citizenship, immigrant
students in adult and higher education, and explore roles of adult educators in civil society as a whole.
References
Alfred, M.V. (2005). New Horizons in Adult Education. Overlooked in Academe What Do we know about Immigrant Students
in Adult and Higher Education? 19 (1), 4-12.
Cunningham, P. (1996). Constitutive Interplay Milst Discourse of East and West: Proceedings of the International Adult
and Continuing Education Conference. Conceptualizing our work as Adult Educators in a Socially Responsible Way, Edited by
P. Cunningham et al. Seoul, Korea: Chung Ang University (ED 401-405)
Dahrendorf, R. (1995). A precarious Balance: Economic Opportunity, Civil Society and Political Liberty. The responsive
Community: Rights and Responsibility, 5 (3), 13-39.
Durish, P. Civil Society, Cultural Hegemony and citizenship: Implications for Adult Educators. Immigration and Nationalism
in Canada: Issues for Citizenship Education, www.oise.utoronto.ca
Gormon, R. Civil Society, Cultural Hegemony and citizenship. The Shift from Education to Training and the Shrinking
Space for Citizenship, www.oise.utoronto.ca
Johnston, R. (2003) Adult Learning in Civil Society, Exploring Roles for Adult Educators. www.leads.ac.uk
#10
Measuring Ethics in Adult Education: Could it be right or could it be wrong?
Maria Medina
University of Wyoming
Final Paper
Measuring Ethics in Adult Education: Could it be right or could it be wrong?
Intellectually designed instruction calls for substantial thought processing and key factors that guide the practice.
Two very important factors within instructional design include analysis and assessment. Within these two areas, the learners
are being taken into consideration at every step of the way. One can not ignore the fact that learner capability is not only
diverse in style but also by demographic standing. Right off hand two learner categories can be pointed out: adult and child.
In the analysis of these two groups, the strategy must be separate and made precise to the group of choice. These two groups
are explained in more detail by Malcolm Knowles, also known as the father of adult learning theory, as androgogy describing
the study of adult learning and pedagogy, describing the study of how children learn. What separates these two processes
on the continuum is the quantity and quality of experiences the learners have when they enter the learning experience and
the amount of control that the learners have over the learning process and environment (Pennsylvania Pathway, 2008).
While young children have not the experience and life knowledge that adults do, ethics would naturally seem to apply more
toward the adult population. That being said, adult educators are left with an array of adult learners that bring very separate
amounts and types of background experience to the table. One question seems to be left unanswered, how can ethics actually
be measured in such a diverse situation? In general, all theories of adult education are based on valuing the prior learning
and experience of adults (O'Brien, 2008). In researching the measurement of ethics in adult education, one must address ethics
in professionalism, conduct research on social purpose in ethics and assess the pros and cons of a universal code of ethics,
in order to understand the reality of measurement.
It would be safe to say that a great majority of organizations operating today offer a standard code of ethics or more
often called a code of conduct. When considering the difficulty in composing a code of ethics for adult education, one can
only wonder how such organizations were able to do so. Take into consideration that professionals who take on the responsibility
of the health and welfare of society by occupying positions, whereas certain actions could literally save or take a life,
they are said to be held to a higher level of ethical standard. While this seems to be common sense, who determines which
positions in life this should be applied to? This brings us to the point that in attempting to put a measure on ethics, one
must address ethics in professionalism.
Professionalism as its own definition has been defined as a combination of professional status, methods, character or
standards. When taking a closer look at professionalism, we can see that ethics have a great deal to do with the topic.
Several organizations can say that the foundation of what they do is based on the publics trust. In adult education, we do
just that. We are entrusted with the responsibility of passing on information that is credible and applicable to every day
professions. This leads me to believe that in essence, adult education could be a foundation for ethical conduct, in which
adults take back to their daily professional routines. Why then is it so hard to pinpoint a universal code of ethics to be
applied to adult education?
Some scholars have suggested we need ethical statements that provide clearly developed values and guidelines steering
the utilization of any form of technology within an educational setting (Brockett, & Hiemstra 2004). While standards
have been addressed and even set in certain areas such as graduate programs in adult education, the focus has been primarily
on curriculum, faculty selection, resource requirements, administrative roles etc. Once again a universal ethical standard
is never made concrete. Sure, we can all have enough common sense to know that cheating would be unethical, where does it
go from there? It is of my opinion that adult education is in a class of its own as an organization, in relation to ethical
conduct.
Adult education as a profession does seem to touch on the generalities of ethical matter and provides some ground rules
for instructors. These ground rules; however, come from the organizational level. They are not detailed and apply only a
small amount of direction. Perhaps, this is due to the constrictions of having a solid code of ethics. As an organization,
all employees are held to the same level of expectation. As we all know through the diversity of learner background and situation
specific context, we could possibly find ourselves in a bind while trying to hold everyone to one standard. Instead of trying
to institutionalize adult education with a professional code of ethics, practitioners would be better absorbed in developing
their own personal values and in gaining an understanding of the historical and philosophical foundations of their work (Brockett
et al, 2004).
Social purpose has been concerned to empower through educational experience and input, individuals and more particularly
collective groups within the working class and disadvantaged sections of these societies (Taylor, 1997). If in fact this
statement is true, research on the social purpose of ethics fits right in with trying to measure ethics in adult education.
We have to take some time to focus on the viewpoint that in the majority of societies, for most of the twentieth century,
the emphasis has been upon workers education.
In an ideal world, everyone would pursue an educational experience just for the fun of it. Unfortunately, that is the
rarity in these times. So, we take it as it comes and fail to fight the power. The power naturally, being the dominant group
or for the purpose of this paper, the top of the food chain. Now, there is the concept of social enterprise, which has been
defined as a social mission driven organization in which trade in goods or services are for a social purpose. This concept
can be elaborated on. The organization can accomplish a social mission within or support related or unrelated social purpose
by means of profit. These two examples stand to show the diversity within social purpose. This diversity only shows one
end of the spectrum versus the other; however, ethics seem to be right in the middle of it all.
So, again who determines which social purpose is more ethical? Educators in adult education are faced with the dilemma
of how to measure which act versus another is ethical. The most dangerous teachers are the ones who say they are objective
(Brockett et al, 2004). It is only obvious that we as human beings apply a combination of prior experience and knowledge
to our decisions. As adult educators, are we really biased because we can not help it? How then, can we ethically measure
someone else who has come from a different background with different experience? Thus, what will our social purpose be?
It can become problematic, when such advocacy is presented in a way that silences those learners who may hold a different
perspective on the issue. On the other hand, neutrality and objectivity are myths (Brockett et al, 2004).
So, with that very startling statement, how do we as adult educators really conduct a sound measurement of ethics in the
educational process? In only attempting to answer this question we must assess the pros and cons of a universal code of ethics
in adult education. It has been said that in recent years the ethics of practice has become a very popular topic of discussion
within several fields, including adult education. Among these discussions are the key debates over whether the development
of a universal code of ethics in adult education, is actually desirable or feasible. While there are arguments both in support
and opposition in the development of such codes, the debate is definitely worth noting.
One of the most popular arguments in support of a universal code of ethics is the fact that it provides a moral framework
to guide practice. This is said to be supported by the fact that the public should be protected from damage done by incompetent
practitioners. On the contrary, arguments against a universal code of ethics have been supported by the decontextualized
nature of codes and their irrelevance to many real life problems of practice. Ultimately, that it would privilege elites
to use their positions of power to develop such codes that could not realistically be developed in a meaningful way that is
broadly acceptable.
A study to determine the views of adult education practitioners on types and natures of ethical issues and the need for
a code of ethics was conducted in Indiana, in 1993. Fifty two percent of the individuals surveyed felt that there should
be a code of ethics for them as adult educators. While fifty two percent is a majority, it is not by a landslide majority
by no means. Also concluded by the majority was that a code of ethics instructs the practitioner about what is good practice,
gives the profession integrity or credibility, contributes to the identification of the occupation as a profession, that a
code of ethics for adult education is as important as a code of ethics for practitioners in law, medicine and other professions
and finally that a code of ethics influences people to restrain themselves from engaging in unethical practices.
While this study is only one in thousands, it does show a small picture of the issues that do come up within just the
discussion of ethical codification. Of those respondents who believed that a code of ethics should have a regulating function,
differences were evident in study responses to the follow-up question of who should have the primary responsibility of code
enforcement or measurement (Gordon, & Sork 2001).
This brings us to the issue of measurement. All too often, I have heard business colleagues and classmates question how
to effectively measure ethics in the classroom. Unfortunately, the current situation at hand is a catch twenty two. We have
an abundance of resources available to us via internet and while we can say that our current learning capabilities provided
online are limitless, we also are faced with the possibility of students cheating by the same means. Mr. Josephson said his
institute surveyed twelve thousand high school students in 2002 and found that seventy four percent admitted to cheating on
an exam at least once in the past year, compared with sixty one percent in a 1992 survey. In 2000, thirty four percent of
high school students agreed with the statement that A person has to lie or cheat sometimes in order to succeed (Lee 2003).
Not only is this information astonishing, it is truly an eye opener. We have six more years of added technology and advancement
since 2002 and I can only imagine the percentage of cheaters at this point in time. I am not sure that I would classify all
of these people as straight across cheaters though. Perhaps, we have students that are unaware of the implications of copyright
etc. This very point brings us back to the difficulty in establishing a universal code of ethics because there are so many
situations that could definitely cross such lines of structured ethical requirement. At this point, it seems as though the
best decision is to avoid placing a concrete label on how things should be done. There will be disagreements on approaches
to use; the specific directions programs should take, funding issues, and even how to interpret program outcomes. However,
it can be very reassuring to have a model for ethical decision making available to work through some of the resulting stress
and to be a means for justifying some of the decision you do make (Brockett et al., 2004).
All together the question of ethics in adult education and the measuring of such seem to go on and on. As the importance
of strengthening ethical reasoning and decision making in school leaders or instructors becomes more and more recognized,
the dilemmas that these individuals face also become more and more complex and conflict-laden. It is only with great admiration
and respect that I compliment those adult educators who have managed to maintain a well rounded ethical standard without having
a universal code to live by. Much like maintaining such a standard, enforcing is a whole different issue.
In the present day, with all the diversity that this country brings, it truly is difficult to say whether something is
done right or whether it is done wrong. The one thing we can be sure of is the definite impact instructors have on their
students. Through researching the measurement of ethics in adult education while addressing ethics in professionalism, conducting
research on social purpose in ethics and assessing the pros and cons of a universal code of ethics, I have been able to gain
a better understanding of the reality of measurement in the field. Whether ones decisions or actions are right or wrong,
no matter what standard they are held to, one quote helps to fill in the gaps: Mistakes are the portals of discovery-James
Joyce-
References
Brockett, R., & Hiemstra, R. (2004).Toward Ethical Practice Common Concerns: Five Ethical Dilemmas, 4, 56-57
Gordon, W., & Sork, T. (2001).Ethical Issues and Codes of Ethics: Views of Adult Ed Educational Practitioners in Canada
and the United States Adult Education Quarterly, 51, 3, 202-18
Lee, F., (2003).Are more People Cheating? Despite Ample Accounts of Dishonesty, a Moral Decline is hard to calculate http://query.nytimes.com
Accessed April 21st,
2008.
O'Brien, G. What are the principles of adult learning?
http://www.southernhealth.org.au/cpme/articles/adult_learning.htm Accessed April 21st, 2008.Pennsylvania Pathways: Professional
Development for Child Caregivers. Training Resource Manual, Adult Learning Principles. http://www.papathways.org/trm_adlearnprinc.htm
Accessed April 21st, 2008.
Taylor, R. (1997).The search for a social purpose in adult continuing education in the New Europe Studies in the Education
of Adults, 29, 92-93
#12
Me, Under Construction
Maria Medina
University of Wyoming
Personal Code of Ethics
Me, Under Construction
One of the most difficult tasks as an adult human being is taking a deep look at ones self and assessing personal beliefs,
values and morals. In attempting to address why one believes the way they do, this complicated task very well could bring
up things from the past that were purposely shoved away; deep, deep into the hidden chambers of the soul. It would seem realistic
to state that most of the current population in the United States have never actually sat down and done such a thing, let
alone, create a personal philosophy.
Without the proper framework for evaluating what is truly meaningful and satisfying, we are bound to be frustrated and
disappointed (Reeves, 2008). After completing research in the area of personal ethics, it appears that developing ones own
personal code of ethics could possibly be one of the most important things one could do for ones self. So, by putting into
writing the ideas and philosophies that are the essence of ones life, one can honestly say, I will do this because I actually
believe in this.
In developing my personal code of ethics, I will be addressing a reflection of who I believe myself to be, a list of what
I believe, how I relate to others I come in contact with and why I believe the way I do. Only after addressing these issues,
can I come up with my personal philosophy and code of ethics. My code of ethics will include the purpose for writing my personal
code of ethics, my list of who I will hold myself responsible to, and a list of rules or beliefs that I expect myself to follow.
I believe myself to be a person of combined intelligence, charm, class and respect. It has been pointed out to me, that
I am very caring and loving. I view myself as someone who would bend over backwards just to help another out. I take time
out of my own personal little world, as I call it, and pay attention to the other little worlds around me.
At one point in my life, I remember my mother saying "Oh Maria, you can not save the world." I guess this would
sum it all up. If I could save the world, I would. On the contrary, I have also been called stubborn and hard headed. I
admit that I can be head strong, overly motivated and often times expect others to see things the way I do. The most cited
explanation from others about me is "She just won't take no for an answer." I suppose this can be both positive
and negative at times; however, any time this has been brought to my attention, it has been in a positive way. The best way
to explain it is no matter the fall, I will not stop. I will just keep on moving.
In assessing my ethical beliefs, I come across a deep rooted Christian belief, which is where a good majority of my beliefs
come from. My number one belief is to try and love all people, regardless of how I am treated. I believe in being good to
myself and being good to others. I believe in the Ten Commandments and I believe that no human being will ever be perfect
like Jesus Christ was. While I understand that I can not be perfect, I do not use that as an excuse to do wrong. I believe
in being positive and trying to avoid negative situations. While I can not avoid all negative situations, I believe I have
a choice to remove myself from a potential threat or harm in my life. I also believe that I have to make mistakes in order
to learn what is right for me. My beliefs are deep rooted and do not fluctuate much. On a day to day basis, I try not to
do things that will hurt others. I try to make the best choice possible for the situation presented.
In relating to others I come in contact with, this would be the greatest diversity in my life. On a business level I
try to keep all complaints to myself. I show my business colleagues only what I feel is appropriate for the setting. My
personal relationships consist of family and friends that see a much closer side of me. These people actually hear the venting,
disappointment and rather negative side of me. I can say I may come across a little arrogant at times as well. When coming
in contact with strangers in a social setting, I only show a humorous and carefree side that definitely masks some deep rooted
pain that has led to the pre occupation of commitment to success. In addressing these relationships, I can think of things
that I could change or work on. One of the major areas I could work on is softening up a little to the people closest to
me.
Now, after my reasons for being, beliefs, and relations have been uncovered, I can reflect on why I am who I am. I am
the oldest of three kids from a broken home. My mother and father divorced when I was seven years old. My father is a very
strict and highly motivated individual, almost to the point where it is unhealthy. My mother on the other hand, is not only
successful but very kind hearted and loving. I feel that my core belief system came from my mother and stepfather who where
my primary caregivers. My mother raised us with Christian beliefs but did not take those beliefs to unhealthy extremes.
She maintained a common ground of faith and religion that relates back to loving others and loving yourself. My step father
was steadfast and very calm. He is one of great integrity and right doing. I can honestly say that the source of my ethical
beliefs is the non denominational Christian religion and my wonderful mother and stepfather.
Where then, does this unsatisfied push to succeed and strive to do better, even when I have done great already, come from?
Why do I place the highest value in life on success rather than marriage etc? I believe this to be from my biological father,
who was absent a good portion of my life. So, coming up with a balance of these two extremes is in fact the struggle I deal
with daily. Perhaps, the following code of ethics that I have created will help aide in this process.
Other than the obvious reason for creating my personal code of ethics, a class requirement, I have decided that I want
to create this personal code of ethics to help understand why I do what I do and make the decisions I make. I would also
like to use this to regulate my behavior and possibly inspire myself to greater heights. After researching different philosophical
beliefs, I can say I draw on two specific systems to come to my personal philosophy.
At the base of my philosophical belief lies the humanistic perspective. I believe that intellect in fact distinguishes
humans and animals. Also, that all humans have potential and some innate goodness. Within this framework, autonomy, dignity
and freedom are held sacred. On the outskirts of this humanistic perspective lies the behaviorism perspective. I also believe
that human behavior is tied to poor conditioning but that it can be corrected at times. I also believe that external forces
definitely contribute but not sure about control human behavior. Ultimately, that stimulus definitely creates response.
Now that I have stated the basis for my personal philosophy, I will list who I will hold myself accountable to.
I will hold responsibilities to myself.
I will hold responsibilities to my family.
I will hold responsibilities to the congregation.
I will hold responsibilities to my colleagues.
I will hold responsibilities to the community.
Within the context of each of the areas that I will hold myself responsible, are specific rules I will adhere to.
Responsibilities to self
1. I will maintain my physical and mental health through regular exercise, proper diet, acceptable hygiene and necessary
relaxation.
2. I will provide spiritual self nurturance through daily devotions to prayer, weekly devotions to church and self examination.
3. I will seek continued opportunities for continued education and professional growth.
4. I will strive at all times to set an example of integrity in all I do including paying debts, abstaining from dishonest
gains or any other immoral act condemned by scripture.
5. I will, at all times, seek to be Christ-like in how I interact with all people regardless of sex, race, creed, social
status, professional position, place in the community, or influence within the church.
Responsibilities to family
1. I will try to balance my time to honor my top priorities: God, family and work.
2. I will make the health of my family and my relationship to its members a priority at all times, regardless if it is
returned.
3. I will strive to provide spiritual guidance as I know it to my family whenever appropriate.
Responsibilities to the congregation
1. I will contribute to the church I go to in a fiscal manner.
2. I will respect the members of the congregation.
Responsibilities to colleagues
1. I will strive to maintain meaningful and supportive relationships within my place of work.
2. I will strive to avoid the spirit of competition with my colleagues.
3. I will act respectfully and professionally at all costs, refraining from slander or gossip of any and every sort.
4. I will hold my colleagues accountable but without passing judgment.
5. I will be honest and polite in any recommendations or inquiries I have of other colleagues.
Responsibilities to the community
1. I will maintain a positive position of productive citizen to contribute to my community.
2. I will submit to the local laws and authorities as long as it does not conflict the holy law of God.
It is my position to maintain the highest standards of the rules that have been listed. I will follow these rules on
a daily basis and correct myself should I falter. These are the values that I live by. Following these values while being
alive, will help insure that I stay productive, thus leading a happy and healthy life. Ultimately, being a good contribution
to society and role modeling the good to future generations.
References
Reeves, S. (2008) www.eng.auburn.edu/~sjreeves/personal/philosophy.html
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