#14

Motivation and Program Planning

A Review of the Literature
Maria Medina ADED 5610
Professor Harbour
October 15, 2008

Motivation and Program Planning

A Review of the Literature

Introduction

Over the past few decades, researchers have demonstrated that the influence of life issues has had a great impact on job satisfaction. Some of these researchers go on to show a direct relationship between organization motivational techniques and employee commitment. Just how far the level of motivational technique extends; however, has been a matter of some controversy. While researchers agree that incentive should be included in the make up of the program plans, they have drawn quite different conclusions in addressing the following questions:

1. How does an organization increase employee commitment?

2. How does employee mood or personality affect organizational behavior?

3. How has the concept of motivation been included in program planning?

This review of the literature on motivation and program planning focuses on these three questions.

Review

How does an organization increase employee commitment?

In an influential study, Tsaia, Yen, Huang, and Huang (2007) argued that in the post- downsizing era, applying appropriate human resource management practices to motivate employees would be a critical issue. Tsaia and his colleagues conducted a study on motivating employees learning commitment in the post downsizing era. The study starts with the psychological framework of job satisfaction and learning commitment. This was used for exploring the actual content of job satisfaction which was shown to significantly influence remaining employees learning commitment.

The study employed both quantitative and qualitative methods for collecting and analyzing data. The results of this study showed that the two criterion of job satisfaction which is defined as the relationship with colleagues and the relationship with the family, significantly influenced the employees learning commitment. Tsaia et al. found that by downsizing within a corporation, the remaining employees had lost their trust and loyalty toward the firms, which lead to their reluctance in learning further in order to improve their skill base. As much of a surprise, certain longitudinal investigations show that by downsizing, some organizations did not achieve their original goals of becoming competitively advantaged. Tsaia et al. go on to say that instead of cutting costs, gaining profits, promoting productivity and increasing stock price, they suffered from low employee morale, less employee commitments, and lack of loyalty.

In retrospect, the conclusions of Tsaia et al. seem to have been right in line with the question of how to increase employee commitment. Although this study focuses on the aspect of downsizing, the remaining employees need such attention. Delery and Shaw (2001) follow up by saying that in the post- downsizing era, for the purpose of strengthening a firm's competitive advantage, those down sized firms should design human resource management practices to motivate the remaining employees to learn new core competencies to leverage overall workforce performance (e.g. productivity) and eventually improve the firms financial performance.

In a related article, Buck and Watson (2002) discuss the correlation between organizational commitment and employee retention. This study focused on the potential influence of human resource management on commitment levels among staff employees. The conclusion found a significant level of relationship between the human resources management strategies and organizational commitment, furthering a potential influence on the rate of turnover. Buck et al. go on to say that there is a real distinction between organizational commitment and job satisfaction. As an attitude, wrote Buck et al., commitment differs from the concept of job satisfaction in several ways. To begin with, commitment as a construct is more global, reflecting a general affective response to the organization as a whole. Job satisfaction, on the other hand, reflects one's response either to one's job or to certain aspects of one's job. Hence, commitment emphasizes attachment to the employing organization, including its goals and values, while satisfaction emphasizes the specific task environment where an employee performs his or her duties.

While this study did not show significant relationship when analyzing human resource management strategies from a systems perspective, it was the individual strategy that revealed a significant relationship. Buck et al. conclude by stating,Clearly, examining the manner in which human resource activities and programs are managed, from both an individual and systems perspective is important and can contribute to understanding the effects of an organization's realized human resource management strategy.

How does employee mood or personality affect organizational behavior?

There is considerable evidence that personality affects performance, regardless of the job situation. In an experimental study, Morrison (1997) examined the influence of job satisfaction and several personality dimensions of four organizational outcomes. These outcomes included performance, organizational commitment, congeniality of franchisor relations, and intention to remain. Morrison finds that the way individuals interact in close relationships outside of work may have important implications for the quality of work relationships as well.

While this study does a great job of distinguishing associative relationships, no confident conclusions were drawn on causal relationships. However, Morrison does conclude with a positive influence of franchisee job satisfaction on performance, organizational commitment, franchisor relations and intent to remain. Morrison says, This study found that, instead of working in isolation, these constructs are substantially interrelated and also were influenced by personality variables. Ultimately, it is suggested to offer positive rewards for organizations whose policies are aimed at developing effective interpersonal relations. Morrison finds that these actions can encourage a sense of belonging and identification with the values and goals of the organization, which can lead to a decrease in potential costly turnover and retraining.

Other examples are not so easily explained away. There are environmental factors that come into play with job satisfaction. For instance, Gunter and Furnham (1996) took a deeper look into employee biographical factors and climate perceptions as predictors of job satisfaction and pride in four sector organizations. Gunter et al. state, Although it is a complex, multifaceted concept, high morale can be considered to predispose employees to exert extra effort to achieve organizational goals and objectives and experience strong feelings of commitment to the organization. The overall findings revealed that the perceived climate factors turned out to be more consistent and powerful predictors of job satisfaction and organizational pride than did the biographical. Gunter et al. say, Rewards and recognition also emerged in relation to job satisfaction. This is followed by the notion that job satisfaction can be conceived of as a personal perception. Within this study, Baron and Greenberg (1990) noted, employee morale has a strong effect on important aspects of organizational behavior, though this relationship is neither simple nor direct.

In another experimental study, Messer and White (2006) explore the role of mood and organizational citizenship behavior. Five large service organizations are included in the study. Messer et al. define organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) as performance that supports the social and psychological environment in which task performance takes place. The definition of mood, for the purposes of this study, is the affects within organizational settings that influence both what and how employees think (Forgas & George, 2001). Messer et al. go on to say that employees who are in a positive mood tend to look favorably upon co-workers in need of help, and as an opportunity to assist them. This study also takes a look into the concept of organizational justice or fairness. Messer et al. explain this as employee perceptions of the manner in which employees have been treated, if they have been treated fairly or not, and the ways that these cognitions influence work related variables (Moorman, 1991).

Within this study, the perceived mood was assessed by using positive and negative adjectives that describe affects during a specific time. The results revealed that the employee perceptions of fairness had a great impact on their reporting of organizational citizenship behavior. More important, Messer et al. say, Specifically, it was found that employees in the fair condition reported significantly higher OCB scores than those employees in the unfair condition. Although the negative mood could not be produced due to ethical constraints, it was still measured by the statements mentioned earlier and was found to decrease significantly when exposed to the positive mood condition.

All in all, it was found that the employee perceptions of fairness had a significant role in their OCB. While the study on the effects between mood and perceived fairness revealed no interaction, it was revealed that employees under the fair conditions reported the highest mean for the OCB. Messer et al. conclude, This study has shown that perceived fairness significantly affected OCB and that a more successful positive mood induction technique is needed before any firm conclusions can be made about the effect of mood state on an employees OCB.

How has the concept of motivation been included in program planning?

A sound article, Gordon (2005), explores the transition from a vision to actual implementation and or evaluation and attempts to explore the changing state of strategic planning. This article focuses on the differences in government management between the periods of 1993 and 2005. All aspects of state of the art strategic planning and lessons learned are combed over. One of the findings was that the lessons of 1993 are still valid for local communities in the modern and upcoming times. The new lessons to be learned are always held into account and the vision for using lessons learned for future endeavors is paramount in this article. Gordon (2005) says, Further, the plans now have a greater reach into the day-to-day activities of the local governments employees, and they increasingly have an impact on performance and resource allocation decisions. Gordon continues to discuss the grave importance of ensuring a direct connection between the plan and those who implement the strategies involved. While a variety of means are discussed, a large focus is on, who will do the job and how will their performance be measured? Gordon concludes, This connection will tie the affected employee training and development programs, performance reviews, and even compensation back to the accomplishment of the sections of the strategic plan.

Lastly, within the realm of employee motivation and planning accordingly, one cannot omit the idea of work design in order to accommodate job satisfaction. Mohr & Zogh (2008) take an in depth look into these topics by conducting a vigorous study. This article studies the direct relationship between the two. This study consisted of 25,000 observations spanning over four years. Two measures of job satisfaction were used. The first is overall satisfaction and the second is satisfaction with pay and benefits. The concluded results suggested that the presence of self selection existed. The satisfied workers were those more likely to participate in high involvement practices; however, this participation did not predict future increases in satisfaction. While this study gets down to the basics of definitions and associations, it is fair to say that there is a definite relationship between the high involvement work design and worker satisfaction. This relationship however, can be either positive or negative. Mohr et al. go on to say, The existing literature also recognizes, however, that even if a positive association between the characteristics of work and the evaluative judgment that individuals make about their jobs exists, the direction of causality may not run entirely in one direction. This article goes on to explore how high-involvement jobs may also correlate with lower levels of job satisfaction. Ultimately, the end findings for this study do indicate that satisfied workers are more likely to increase participation in high involvement practices but that participation does not predict future increase in satisfaction. Mohr et al. end with, Do satisfied and less satisfied workers differ in the way they describe their jobs? Do satisfied workers volunteer to participate in involvement programs? Are managers more likely to ask satisfied workers to participate in involvement programs? Do overall levels of morale affect a managers' choice of whether or not to introduce new involvement schemes? Answers to these questions, particularly if supported with evidence from broad, multi-industry data sets, will considerably advance the effort to identify causal links in the association between job satisfaction and high-involvement work design.

Interpretation

As a key challenge, this paper is an attempt at connecting the concept of employee motivation to program planning. Seven articles ranging from motivating employees in general to high involvement work design were reviewed in attempts of supporting the idea that employee motivation should not only be discussed but included within the design of an effective program. These articles were broken down into three sections. 1. How does an organization increase employee commitment, 2. How does employee mood or personality affect organizational behavior? and 3. How has the concept of motivation been included in program planning?

For the first section, how does an organization increase employee commitment, the first article discussed the motivation of employees in general. It was found that while downsizing within an organization to cut costs, the organization was actually cutting employee morale as well. This lack of employee morale negatively affected the organization. Thus, Delery & Shaw, (2001) go on to say,For the purpose of strengthening a firm's competitive advantage, firms should design HRM practices to motivate the remaining employees. This thought process, can piggy back the original concept of the importance of motivational techniques within a company. The second article discussed the issues of retaining employees, keeping them committed and the relationship of human resource management. This article showed a real distinction between organizational commitment and job satisfaction, which included attachment to the organization. Buck et al. find that employee departures are often unexpected and force administrators to spend valuable time and effort recruiting, selecting, and training replacements. This leads one to believe that more emphasis should be put on keeping employees by motivating them, rather than dealing with high turnover rates.

The second area of interest was how employee mood or personality can affect organizational behavior. The first article discussed within this section discussed the importance of job satisfaction in relation to personality dimensions. A very interesting finding was that individual acts outside of work can imply the quality of work within the job. The idea of using a positive rewards system was offered as well. Morrison (1997) says, Job satisfaction has been one of the most frequently studied work attitudes. This further supports the importance of employee motivation. The second article discussed the idea that high morale predisposes employees to exert extra effort to achieve goals and objectives with strong feelings of commitment. Morrison (1997) goes on to say, Morale, therefore, can be classified as both an individual and a group phenomenon within an organization, involving extra effort on the part of employees, goal commonality, and feelings of belonging. Thus, this high level of morale can be increased by motivational techniques thought of before hand.

The final article within this section focused on the environmental mood of an organization and the influence that it has on employees. Mood for this purpose is defined as the influence within an organization that affects both what and how employees think. This article leads the reader to believe that the environmental mood that is provided by the organization can definitely affect employee perception. Also discussed was the concept of fairness. They go on to include that an employees perception of fairness is affected by how they view other employees being treated. Messer et al. finish with, Either way, whether cognition influences emotions (Piaget, 1981) or emotions influence cognitions (Forgas & George, 2001) there appears to be a consistent acknowledgement of an interaction between these two factors.

The final section discussed is how the concept of motivation has been included in program planning. The first article reviewed in this section seemed to tie many of the previous factors together by exploring the changing state of strategic planning. It is shown that in the present, a more day to day approach is used within planning. The author discusses the grave importance of ensuring a direct connection between the plan and those implementing the strategies within the plan. Gordon (2005) says, The need for a strong and clear connection between vision and strategies and tactics, and ultimately to implementation, has become a part of the planning process for many local governments today. This connection will tie the affected employees training and development programs, performance reviews, and even compensation back to the accomplishments of the sections of the strategic plan. There could not be a better way of stating the interrelated functions of the people working, their happiness, program achievement and satisfaction.

The final article reviewed the high involvement work design and the concept of self- selection. This article showed a definite relationship between satisfied workers having a higher probability of being highly involved within the organization. This article also gave a sound oppositional viewpoint as well. This oppositional view pointed out that high involvement could also lead to low satisfaction. Thus, high satisfaction could lead to higher involvement but that there is no guarantee of satisfaction due to high involvement. This only reaffirms the idea that the more satisfied a worker is, the more involved they become. This only further supports the idea that motivational techniques for employees should be included within the program planning stages.

Conclusion

In conclusion, individuals are believed to be active organisms, rather than passive tools. Deci and Ryan (1985, p.8) stated that human beings act on their internal and external environments to be effective and to satisfy the full range of their needs. This would seem to be the direct link of behavior which is an act of internal wants and needs being affected and continuously affected by environmental experiences and outcomes. This shows an indication that humans are motivated intrinsically to strive to achieve the desired goal or outcome. Likewise, instant gratification could lead one to attempt something that would not likely be something they would normally attempt. Cherrington and Wixom (1983) stated that people do what they are reinforced or rewarded for doing.

That being said, it is fair to say that the concept of employee motivation can be considered a very important aspect within a program or organization. However, it seems rare that this aspect is considered while the program planning is actually taking place. This was the starting point for the inspiration for this literature review on areas related to employee motivation and organizational commitment. Within this literature review, three areas were explored. These included: 1. How does an organization increase employee commitment? 2. How does employee mood or personality affect organizational behavior? And 3. How has the concept of motivation been included in program planning? After conducting just a short literature review on this subject matter, it is safe to say that there is a definite relationship between employee motivation and employee commitment. This level of motivation can span across several areas of interest. While this relationship seems very connected and dependent upon one another, it is fair to suggest that more organizations should include the concept of employee motivation within their program stages of planning.

After all, human motivation is not unitary; it is a configuration of many components (Warren 1973, p. 2). In addition to several components, researchers alike agree that adults are motivated to learn by internal factors rather than external ones (Knowles 1984). Furthermore, Wlokdowski (1985) stated that when adults are given what they need and desire, they will tend to be highly motivated.

References

Baron, R.A. & Greenberg, J. (1990) Behavior in Organizations. Boston: Ally & Bacon.

Buck, J.M. & Watson, J.L. (2002) Retaining Staff Employees: The Relationship BetweenHuman Resource Management Strategies and Organizational Commitment. Innovative Higher education. Vol 26, No. 3

Cherrington, J.D. & Wixom, B. J. Jr. (1983). Recognition is Still a Top Motivator. Journal of Personnel Administrator. 62(3): 208-14.

Deci, L.E. & Ryan, M.R. (1985) Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

Delery, J. E., & Shaw, J.D. (2001). The strategic Management of People in Work: Review, Synthesis and Extension. Research in Personnel and human Resource Management. 20: 165-197

Gordon, G. (2005). From Vision to Implementation and Evaluation: The changing State of Strategic Planning. Public Management.87, no8, 26-85

Gunter, B. & Furnham, A. (1996). Biographical and Climate Predictors of Job Satisfaction and Pride in Organizations. The Journal of Psychology. V13 o p193- 208

Messer, B.A. & White, F.A. (2006) Employees Mood, Perceptions of Fairness, and Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Journal of Business and Psychology. Vol 21, No. 1

Mohr, R.F. & Zoghi, C. (2008). High Involvement Work Design and Job Satisfaction. Industrial and Labor Relations Review. 61 Ind. & Lab. Rev. 275

Morrison, K. (1997) How Franchise Job Satisfaction and Personality Affects Performance, Organizational Commitment, Franchisor Relations and Intentions to Remain. Journal of Small Business Management. V35 p 39-67.

Tsaia, P.C., Yen, Y., Huang, L.C. & Huang, J. C. (2007). A Study on Motivating Employees. Journal of World Business. 42 No2 157-69.

Warren, E. T. (1973). The Implications of A.H. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory for Adult Education. University Microfilms, Michigan, U.S.A.

Wlodkowski, J. R. (1985). How to Plan Motivational Strategies for Adult Instruction. Performance and Instruction Journal. 24(9) 1-6.

#18
Final Research Critique

Taplin,M., Yum, J.C.K., Jegede, O., Fan, R.Y.K., & Chan, M.S.C. (2001). Help-seeking strategies used by high-achieving and low-achieving distance education students. Journal of Distance Education, 16(1), 56-69.

University of Wyoming
Aimee Callahan
Maria Medina
ADED 5090: M.A. Capstone Course
Dr. Michael Day
Dr. Steve Aagard

Introduction Summary

Context

The authors of this study, Help-seeking Strategies Used by High-Achieving and Low-Achieving Distance Education Students,include a variety of scholars from the faculty of the Open University of Hong Kong. Margaret Taplin is a research fellow in the centre for Research in Distance & Adult Learning at the Open University of Hong Kong. Jessie Yum is a research coordinator in the Centre for Research in Distance & Adult Learning at the Open University of Hong Kong. Olugbemiro Jegede is the Director of the Centre for Research in Distance & Adult Learning at the Open University of Hong Kong. Rocky Y.K. Fan is an associate professor of mathematics in the School of Science and Technology at the Open University of Hong Kong. May S.C. Chan is an assistant professor of mathematics in the School of Science and Technology at the Open University of Hong Kong. Although this study was conducted between 1996 and 1998, it was published in the Journal of Distance Education in 2001. This study has a specific audience of the Open University of Hong Kong and the authors aimed to have this study contribute significant information that can be useful to the university's future planning in a number of areas. These areas include course design, student counseling, instructional strategies, evaluation and assessment, motivation to learn, and psychosocial needs of adult learners.

Purpose

The authors suggest that help-seeking takes place in a different context for distance education students, compared to those students in a conventional educational setting. Their reasoning includes the limited face-to-face contact, little interaction between students and often isolated learning that students in distance education experience. The authors sought to investigate whether there was a difference in attempts of seeking help, the kinds of problems for which help is sought, and from whom help is sought between the high and low-achieving students.

History of Methodology

Help-seeking Strategies Used by High-Achieving and Low-Achieving Distance Education Students,makes a case for distance education students willingness to engage in help- seeking strategies based on their level of achievement. These authors illustrate this willingness through analysis of observations and results from their research of both low-achieving and high- achieving students attending the Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK). Taplin et al. refer readers to Chan et al.'s (1999) paper presented at the 13th annual conference of the Asian Association of Open Universities in Beijing, China for full details about the methodology, questionnaire, and interview schedule because their published article focuses on describing the items that were designated to help students, help-seeking behaviors. (For online access to the Chan et al. article, please refer to http://www.ouhk.edu.hk/CRIDAL/papers/chanmsc.pdf)

To best critique the article we did in fact refer to Chan et al.'s (1999) paper and found the following sampling description:

A sample of 3173 high achieving and low achieving students was selected from all the courses which were examined in August 96, February 97, August 97 and February 98. A total of 712 validly-completed questionnaires were returned (22%), of which 460 (65%) were from the group of high achievers, and 252 (35%) from the group of low achievers. The sample was evenly distributed according to gender. (n.p.)

The achievement levels (and thus the population sample for this study) were selected by the top 5% (high achievers) and bottom 5% (low achievers). Chan et al. describe the subsample of 32 respondents who participated in the telephone interviews:

The sub-sample for the follow-up interview was selected, using simple random sampling technique, from a pool of respondents who had indicated on their questionnaires that they were willing to be interviewed and to provide contact details. The size of this sub-sample was restricted by the need to maintain a balance between high and low achievers in foundations and non-foundations courses, and was therefore determined by the number of volunteers in the smallest cell, 8. Consequently, a total of 32 students was [sic] interviewed. (n.p.)

Findings

The authors of this study found that while interpretations of the study were limited due to the fact that the study was restricted to a single sample in one specific context and that there was no evidence of statistically significant differences between high and low achievers, some interesting patterns have shown some implications for further research or policy implementation. The majority of students sampled regarded help-seeking as a positive way to learn. Most of the students thought that the first attempt should come from ones self. One of the main reasons for not seeking help was that access to a knowledgeable person was too difficult. One implication suggested by these outcomes was the need to address other strategies to make it easier for students to seek help when needed. Based on those students in both groups that reportedly sought help, a chi-square test suggested no statistically significant relationships between help-seeking and achievement. Also, there were no significant differences between the mean ratings of gender and achievement groups regarding help-seeking as a good way to learn.

As far as the different types of help sought, there were no significant differences between the mean rating of both the high and low achievers in preference for seeking help. Regarding the question of those individuals the students went to for help, graphs were used to compare these sources. The majority of both groups sought help from tutors first, followed by other students, then former students. The only significance within this portion was that slightly more low achievers sought help from former students. Also, in all cases the high-achieving female group had the highest percentage of students asking family or friends, followed in most cases by the low-achieving women. Lastly, a significant relationship was found in the questionnaire analysis between gender and achievement in the formation of self-study groups, with the largest proportion being the high-achieving women and the smallest the low-achieving women. The authors of this critique suggest it worthwhile to conduct further research to investigate the potential impact of participating in study groups on achievement, particularly of low-achieving female students.

Critical Discussion

The purpose of this study was to determine possible differences in help-seeking strategies between high-achieving and low-achieving distance education students. The title of the article provides clarity for the variables and population identified; however, the type of study is not as concise. Did this title in fact create an interest in reading the research? The abstract was a fairly comprehensive summary of the article and clearly explained the general purpose of the study by highlighting the design and sample population. The abstract could have provided more detail of key results. Wilson and Hayes (2000) state technologies are creatively mixed to meet the growing need for adult and continuing education(p. 427). This being said, this study attempts to address the possible problem of the success of distance learning students attempts at seeking help.

The general purpose of the study is not only clear but the specific purposes of the study are summarized in the sixth paragraph. These purposes are concise and include questions regarding whether each group is more likely than the other to seek help, the kinds of problems for which they seek it and from whom they seek it. An additional inquiry of the study was whether each group was more likely than the other to use an instrumental or executive help-seeking strategy. According to Wilson & Hayes (2000) students, who are a creation of education, are evaluated with respect to their grasp of material that is selected and organized by those who operate the system and its environment(p.509). This idea goes hand in hand with Wilson and Hayes (2000) idea that environment,in this case, includes not only the pedagogy, certified teachers, classrooms, textbooks, years, grades, courses, extracurricular activities, but most importantly, interaction with other students. Therefore, a reasonable case is made for overall importance of this study in that we believe the article contributes to furthering the field of distance education research; however, the following analysis will explain how we ascertain the research can be improved upon.

While more directly related material or similar studies could have been provided by the authors to further substantiate the study, a great deal of background information is provided in relation to the topic. The review of literature can be found in the first six paragraphs under the introduction heading. This particular information provides more of a sound theoretical basis for this study. These theories are supported by several authors including Daubman & Lehman (1993), Karabenick & Knapp (1991), Newman & Schwager (1995) and Ryan & Hicks (1997). Mcmillan and Wergin (2006) relay that the continuous literature review is needed to connect previous studies with ongoing changes in the focus and methodology of the study(p. 8). This review is up to date for the most part. It would be nice to see more current literature (within the last five years) provided for demonstrating the ongoing changes in the focus and methodology of the study.

Vella (2002) contends "considering adult educators accountable to their learners is a startling principle" (p. 213). This concept should apply across the educational board and extend to distance education. This study seeks to prove that student achievement levels could be significantly different due to the attempts of the students seeking help. No hypothesis is provided and the accountability of the adult educator in distance education is nearly absent from this framework and the readers are left with a one-sided view of the possible problem. This forces the reviewer to extract the framework from implicit statements in the literature review. Six specific research questions were stated. These include:

1. Is either group more likely than the other to seek help either directly by asking somebody else or forming study groups with other students?

2. To what extent, and under what circumstances, is help-seeking perceived by high or low achievers to be valuable or threatening?

3. About what sorts of things do they seek help, and from whom do they seek it?

4. What are their reasons for not seeking help?

5. Do those who seek help do so effectively?

6. Do those who do not seek help have appropriate alternative ways of overcoming their difficulties?

This framework appears to be based on tentative theory rather than scientific theory; although, identity of and relationships among the concepts of interest are thoroughly linked. Elias & Merriam (2005) say, "Theory without practice leads to an empty idealism and action without philosophical reflection leads to a mindless activism" (p.5).

Sampling & Methodology

This study provides a clear method of sampling. Respondents were selected using a purposive sampling method from the top 5% of high achievers and bottom 5% of low achievers of Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK) courses offered from August 1996 through February 1998 (as discussed above under History of Methodology). Of the 3173 high and low achieving students selected to participate in the study, over 712 (n = 712) respondents completed questionnaires using a five point Likert scale measuring attitudes on seeking help. It must be noted the authors fail to attribute their attitude scale as being a Likert measure of attitudes. This seems an important detail neglected by the authors as most published research articles often describe their measurement scales as Likert, borrowed from a seminal study, or as original. The sample was nonrandom, and included a sub-sample of 32 participants (of the n = 712) who were interviewed over the telephone.

Of the sample 343 were male, while 369 were female. With regard to gender and achievement level, the high-achieving group contained 197 men and 263 women, totaling 460. The low-achieving group contained 146 men and 106 women, totaling 252. It must be noted that we were taken aback to find Chan et al.'s 1999 research paper of the study's findings to be much more representative of a typically published research article than Taplin et al.'s 2001 treatise. Although Taplin et al. refer readers to the 1999 conference paper's sampling methods we were left wondering why a few extra sentences describing their sample were purposely left out of their article, leaving it seemingly incomplete and an inaccurate representation of a scholarly research article.

While the sample size is fairly large, adding reliability to the measure of the study, a problem lies with the distribution of the sample. The sample number for the low-achieving group, in particular, is rather low in comparison to the high-achieving group. It is apparent that a larger sample with regard to each category, would have aided in a more equivalent comparison to be used in the data analysis, specifically when looking for overall mean (µ) differences between gender and achievement. When performing a group comparison study, it is of course quite possible to have reliable results using unequal numbers of respondents in groups being compared. However, it is also beneficial to have the sample sizes of groups being compared mirror one another for more reliable results whenever possible.

Analysis of Instruments and Procedures

Validity of the reported results of this study could have been affected by the wide difference between the numbers of questionnaires completed (n = 712) versus the telephone interviews (n = 32). Throughout the article, the authors provide highlights of the group comparison statistical tests run, such as group mean comparisons, two way ANOVA's, and chi-square tests; the majority of which do not yield statistically significant results. Rather than explain possibilities of why the quantitative data did not yield statistically relevant results (or future considerations) the authors tend go into detail describing the phone interview data collection results. Readers are left confused as to whether the sub-sample of respondents should have been larger in number rendering this study more qualitative than quantitative. It is often the case that quantitative studies of this nature are supplemented by qualitative data but the authors of this study focus on highlighting the qualitative data throughout the results, meanwhile peppering the results section with the insignificance of the quantitative findings.

Readers also have no way of verifying if the study's quantitative results are limited by the authors lack of reporting a reliability measure of the instrument (such as Cronbach alpha), further leaving readers wondering if the researchers even checked the questionnaire for measurement reliability at all. Readers must refer to Chan et al.'s 1999 conference paper to find the Cronbach alpha measurement of the questionnaire. From this measurement we can assume the instrument used in this study is in fact measuring student attitudes on help-seeking it purports to measure.

Taplin et al. fail to report how many Likert scale items were included on the questionnaire also leaving readers wondering if the questionnaire included enough items to effectively measure each of their six research questions. In their paper, Chan et al. also do not describe the five point scaled items as Likert items. According to A. Moore, a best practice of a questionnaire is to include at minimum seven to ten Likert scale items per research question to add reliability to the statistical test findings (personal correspondence, Spring 2007). One is left wondering if the study didn't yield statistically significant results due to the fact the instrument was not properly constructed to measure the researchers six research questions. To find these answers we referred to Chan et al.'s 1999 article to find that the attitudinal measures included nine to ten items per attitude measure, thus enhancing the study's reliability. Again we are left wondering why Taplin et al. would go to such length to describe these details of their study yet leave out basic factors of the study which can increase reader's confidence in their study's findings.

With so much weight of the study's results given to the qualitative findings perhaps the authors should have increased their sub sample size (from n = 32) to yield more reliable results. Considering the interview practices of qualitative studies when training interviewers to yield the most objective responses possible, the following questions are raised: Who conducted such interviews? Were they trained on objectivity in gathering phone data? Did they have leading questions? How did the explanation of questionnaire vs. interview differ? Again, to find these answers we referred to Chan et al. (1999):

The interviews, which were conducted in Cantonese, were tape-recorded and transcripts were summarized in English. In order to validate these transcriptions, three members of the research team listened to a random selection of the tape recordings and agreed that the transcriptions were accurate reflections. The issues that were explored in the interview were: the choice of study place, the way students balance their studies with work, family and social commitments, preferred ways of organising their study time, learning strategies, self-perceptions, use of student support services and help-seeking behaviours. (n.p)

It was our opinion, before referring to Chan et al., that the authors should consider their current study a seminal pilot study and approach the study using a qualitative interview approach and supplement the study with a quantitative questionnaire. After finding the above practices adhered to in gathering interview data we feel the authors did a sufficient job of gathering interview data. Our only caveat would be whether any of the data interpretation was "lost in translation" from Cantonese to English. We would also like to recommend the authors consider face-to-face interviews (possibly videotaped) to increase the reliability and validity of the results. Interviews with focus groups could also be considered.

According to Brockett & Hiemstra (2004) "The second dimension of ethical practice in adult education refers to a consideration of multiple responsibilities. This dimension illustrates that the responsibilities of educators and trainers extend in many directions" (p. 14). This brings us to the ethical aspects of this study. Based on the information that this study provides, we are not aware of any steps or appropriate actions to remove or prevent any possible harm. Was the study approved by an internal review board (IRB) prior to being administrated? We do not know if any type of coercion or undue influence was used in recruiting participants or if any vulnerable subjects were used. We also have no idea if the participants were fully aware of participating in a study, and if they understood the purpose of the research. Lastly, it would be appropriate to provide proof of appropriate steps taken to safeguard the privacy of the participants.

An additional consideration that further discredits this study is the authors lack of reporting cultural considerations given regarding the respondents, particularly considering the fact they state the purpose of their study is to uncover any insights about successful help-seeking strategies that can be used by distance education students, specifically those in the predominantly Chinese culture of Hong Kong. The authors generalize the reports of their findings cross culturally but do not mention how distance education and help-seeking differ from one culture to the next. For instance, Asian cultures (Japan, Korea, China, etc.) assign the instructor role an unchallengeable entity in the classroom, and to ask questions of an instructor may evoke disrespect and challenge the instructor's intelligence. Nowhere in the article is this mentioned (and although it is mentioned by Chan et al. we feel these culturally relevant factors should be mentioned by Taplin et al). The authors don't provide insight on why the instructor isn't considered as an individual the students could potentially go to for assistance. Rather, the authors mention classmates, friends, family and tutors as help-seeking resources. They also fail to mention if there were other resources available to students such as a campus writing center, student improvement workshops, et cetera.

Language factors could have played a role in the validity of the study's results. In a multilingual city as Hong Kong we were left wondering if the study was conducted in English, Mandarin or Cantonese? The fact that these are the three languages commonly spoken in Hong Kong it seems odd the authors do not mention what language the questionnaire was in and what language was spoken during the phone interviews. If the research was conducted in a second language of the students the results can be highly questionable. If the results were translated without making an effort at objectivity they are also highly suspect. Although Chan et al. (1999) tell us the interviews were conducted in Cantonese, the authors leave readers in the dark on the language they use for their questionnaire data gathering thus leaving us with more questions as to how this can properly be allocated as a culturally relevant study.

Over the years, educational researchers have made significant progress in exploring the cognitive processes involved with learning. Another important aspect of cognitive learning involves emotion. Zembylas (2008) states:

The lack of inquiry on the emotions of learning is even more visible in online learning contexts. Electronic learning has been depicted as less emotional and more impersonal (e.g., lack of body language, facial expressions, and gestures) when compared to face-to-face learning. Yet, emotion is hardly absent from online learning contexts. (p. 71)

The authors make an effort to highlight an emotional aspect of the help-seeking habits of distance education students and state some may construe help-seeking as admitting lack of ability and thus consider it to be threatening to their self-worth and thus to be avoided. Upon reading this statement we were left wondering if perhaps it is not the distance education aspect of this study's participants that is influencing their help-seeking habits at all, but rather the character and emotional avoidance of the student's personality that avoids help-seeking. It would be beneficial to the study to make an attempt to differentiate between the two (and possibly more) impetuses behind seeking help.

It is clear the authors researched help-seeking among high and low-achieving distance education students. However, they fail to differentiate how the results of their study compare to non-distance education students help-seeking techniques. According to Tattersall, Waterink, Hoppener and Koper (2006), Open and distance learning (ODL) gives learners control of the time, place, and pace of learning.However, this flexibility goes hand-in-hand with procrastination and non-completion.Despite its importance, measuring efficiency in ODL is problematic(p. 391). The authors could have been clearer exactly how their study measured the help-seeking habits of distance education students versus brick and mortar students. They do not properly set distance education help-seeking student attributes apart from face-to-face student help-seeking habits so we cannot see how the results of the study can be readily generalized among all distance education students.

Conclusion

The authors offer sparse future considerations regarding their study aside from offering that it is anticipated that further investigation of the issues outlined above will help to enhance the quality of the distance education experience for both high and low-achieving students. We agree there is a specific need for additional research on distance education and how it affects student learning and help-seeking strategies. Rolfe (2007) states, "as online courses have become more of an alternative to the traditional classroom environment there's a need for exploring methods on how to evaluate these online courses and their learning objectives" (p. 1).

Our intention in this critique is be clear in that we agree with the authors purpose and intentions of the study but find their methods of research lacking in the multiple respects we mentioned. Although they provide reference to Chan et al.'s 1999 paper:A Comparison of the Study Habits and Preferences of High Achieving and Low Achieving Open University Students, we feel that in order to properly critique a research article based upon that particular paper more description of the research procedures should have been mentioned by Taplin et al. In order to properly grasp the depth of the research involved in this study we found it necessary to read Help-seeking Strategies Used by High-Achieving and Low-Achieving Distance Education Students,by Taplin et al. while simultaneously referring to Chan et al.'s 1999 paper "A Comparison of the Study Habits and Preferences of High Achieving and Low Achieving Open University Students." In short, only reading Taplin et al.'s article left us with numerous unanswered questions regarding their research (that were never addressed in their article).

Overall, the research was performed with good intentions of discovering methods of help-seeking by distance education students in order to better inform students of the positive aspects of help-seeking. The study also has a firm goal of what research questions need to be answered, but the study is severely lacking reliability and validity in the sampling, methodology, instruments and procedures applied in attempting to properly answer the research questions. It is our opinion the study could be revamped by applying a stronger qualitative approach focusing on actual communication versus analyzing a potentially invalid measurement instrument.

We agree with the authors that the nature of their study can in fact "enhance the quality of the distance education experience for both high and low-achieving students" if performed with more cultural, informative and statistically reliable analytical tenets as a firm foundation upon which the research questions are studied. The authors sought to investigate the students help-seeking behaviors in relation to the full spectrum of their student lives and we think their study provides at least a starting point from which this lofty research goal may eventually be accomplished.

References

Brockett, R., & Hiemstra, R. (2004). Toward ethical practice. Malabar, FL:Krieger Publishing Company.

Chan, M.S.C., Jegede, O., Fan, R., Taplin, M., & Yum, J.C.K. (1999). A comparison of the study habits and preferences of high achieving and low achieving Open University students. Paper presented to the 13th annual conference of the Asian Association of Open Universities.

Elias, J., & Merriam,S., (2005). Philosophical foundations of adult education. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.

McMillan, J., & Wergin, J. (2006). Understanding and evaluating educational research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Publishing.

Rolfe, C. J. (2007). Getting the bugs out of the distance learning experience. College Quarterly, 10(3), 1-35.

Tattersall, C., Waterink, W., Hoppener, P., & Koper, R. (2006, November). A case study in the measurement of educational efficiency in open and distance learning. Distance Education, 27(3), 391-404.

Vella, Jane. (2002). Learning to listen, learning to teach: The power of dialogue in educating adults (rev. ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Wilson, A., & Hayes, E. (2000). Handbook of adult and continuing education, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Zembylas, M. (2008, May). Adult learners' emotions in online learning. Distance Education, 29(1), 71-87.