#1
Running head: CAMPAIGN AND PUBLIC OPINION

An Educational Campaign Aims to Change Public Opinion about a Smoke-free Policy

Maria Medina
University of Wyoming

Introduction

Health practitioners and Nation wide health organizations have maintained their position on the negative effects of secondhand smoke. Not only is the healthcare sector interested in this topic but the health risks of exposure to (ETS), Environmental Tobacco Smoke, in the workplace have become a focus of scientific and public attention (Bal, Cowling, Koumjian, Lloyd, Rogers, Stevens, & Tang, 2003). While research in this area is increasing, only a few studies conducted either in the United States or in other countries, however, have explored the ETS related attitudes and behaviors of the general population before the establishment of smoke-free bars and restaurants (Bal et al., 2003).

Typical administrative policy change at the municipal level does indeed reflect the concerns and opinions of the citizens. In attempting to pass tobacco related legislation that affects the common people, sustained tobacco prevention programs need to precede these efforts. Despite varying levels of funding, these programs have demonstrated greater success in reducing tobacco use than is possible without such programs (Bandi, Cokkinides, Jemal, Thun & Ward, 2006).

These programs offer a wide variety of educational and best practices, offered by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, to attempt the task of changing social norms. Counter advertising is used by comprehensive tobacco-control programs to educate the public about the dangers of tobacco, counter act the marketing appeal of tobacco products, and change social norms about the acceptability of tobacco use (Bandi et al, 2006).

As a beginning task in changing public opinion about a smoke free ordinance, this research will address the following question: Would a comprehensive educational campaign affect public opinion on smoke free policy? The two variables in question are educational campaign (defined as items used over a set time period for educational purposes) and public opinion (defined as views, opinions and attitudes) as recorded in public assessments.

Method

For this study, residents from the Pine Bluffs, Wyoming and surrounding areas, containing the prefix of 245 in their telephone number, will be used for the study. This stratified sampling method will result in a sample size of approximately four hundred and seventy two residents. This is considered correlational research, as the purpose is to determine the relationship between educational campaigning and public opinion.

The first steps of the study would be to compile a thorough list of the target population. Upon completion of the list, each resident would be contacted by telephone to ask them if they are interested in participating in a survey. This population is a sample based on strata from the entire population, which ensures external validity. At this point, they would not be informed of the ultimate purpose of this study to ensure internal validity as well, which would also protect against the Hawthorne Effect.

As one of the disadvantages of telephone interviewing is the lack of opportunity to establish rapport with the respondent, the interviewer will identify themselves right away and explain that they are doing a survey and that they are not asking for money. Also, the questions will be short with a limited number of options.

Next, the residents would be surveyed to determine public opinion. Again, this is operationally defined as views, opinions and attitudes of secondhand smoke and smoke free policies.

This survey will be the first in a series of two. The first survey will be conducted six months prior to the last. The six month lapse will be for a comprehensive educational campaign on the negative effects of secondhand smoke. The educational campaign will include a number of projects to include media (television, print, and radio), letters to the editor, civic group presentations, business owner education, city council education and the holding of special events related to tobacco education.

Data would be analyzed by calculating a Pearsons Correlation Coefficient. If a strong negative correlation exists, the conclusion would be that exposure to an educational campaign has a strong relationship with change in public opinion on smoke free policy. As education increases, the number of negative opinions on smoke free policy decreases.

This research could prove to have very strong implications. This research would add to the current available research on understanding how educational campaigns affect public opinion. If a strong relationship does exist, there would be implications for possible introduction of smoke free policy in the town of Pine Bluffs.

References

Bandi, P., Cokkinides, V., Jemal, A., Thun, M., & Ward, E. (2006). Other Approaches to Tobacco Control. Progress and Opportunities in Tobacco Control, 56, 135-142.

Ball, D., Cowling, D., Koumjian, K., Lloyd, J., Rogers, T., Stevens, C., & Tang, H. (2003) Changes of Attitudes and Patronage Behaviors in Response to a Smoke Free Bar Law. American Journal of Public Health, 93(4), 611-617.

Annotated Bibliography

Angulo, A., Bourcier, E., Freeman, E., & Pearson, D. (2007). Hospitality Workers Attitudes and Exposure to Secondhand Smoke, Hazardous Chemicals, and Working Conditions. Academic Search Premier Public Health Reports, 122(5), 670-678.This article describes how a mail survey of 3,659 union members of the hospitality industry were surveyed, by mail on several health related issues in relation to hospitality working conditions. The primary purpose of this study was to assess if there were ways that public health and labor could collaborate to document the health attitudes and needs of the hospitality industry workers. Topics covered in this study were exposure to secondhand smoke, exposure to hazardous chemicals and materials, time pressure and job demands, and work-related pain/disability. General demographics were also recorded.

Bal, D.G., Cowling, D.W., Koumjian, K.L., Lloyd, J.C., Rogers, T., Stevens, C., & Tang, H. (2003) Changes of Attitudes and Patronage Behaviors in Response to a Smoke-Free Bar Law. American Journal of Public Health, 93(4), 611-617.The authors in this study take a broad look at Environmental Tobacco Smoke exposure and the long term adverse effects on health. Within this study a computer-assisted telephone survey was conducted on 1001 adults, identified as bar patrons, for the California Department of Health Services. A series of three surveys were conducted. The main focus was to have the respondents rate their approval of a smoke free law.

Bandi, P., Cokkinides, V., Jemal, A., Thun, M., & Ward, E. (2006). Progress and Opportunities in Tobacco Control. American Cancer Society, 56, 135-142.This report reviews the population trends in tobacco use by youth and adults, describes some of the policy measures that have proven effective in comprehensive tobacco control, and discusses the role of clinicians in the diagnosis and treatment of tobacco dependence in patients. Within this report, smoke free laws and smoking cessation are also addressed.

Barnes, R., Glantz, S., & Hammond, S. (2006) The Tobacco Industrys Role in the 16 Cities Study of Secondhand Tobacco Smoke: Do the Data Support the Stated Conclusions? Environmental Health Perspectives, Wilson Omni file, 114(12), 1890-7.The authors in this report go into great detail on the 16 city study that the tobacco industry has promoted since 1996. This study illustrates that exposure to secondhand smoke is lower in the workplace than in the home. These authors analyze tobacco industry documents and regulatory agency and court documents to evaluate the validity of the studys conclusions.

Blaisdell, R.J., Broadwin, R.L., & Vork, K.L. (2007) Developing Asthma in Childhood From Exposure to Secondhand Tobacco Smoke: Insights from a Meta-Regression. Environmental Health Perspectives Academic Search Premier, 115(10), 1394-1400. This article covers an in depth study by an extensive literature search of epidemiologic studies of secondhand smoke exposure and the development of childhood asthma. The conclusions indicate that exposure duration may be a more important factor in the induction of asthma than found before. Also, that secondhand smoke could be a more widespread cause of childhood asthma than what studies have shown previously.

Feigelman, W., & Lee, J.A. (2006) Are Americans Receptive to Smoke Free Bars? Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 38(2), 133-141.Whether the general American public accepts smoke free bars and restaurants has been an upcoming subject of study. This article is a cross-sectional trend study that uses data from the May 1993 and January 1999 current population surveys, Tobacco Use Supplements to compare tobacco control attitudes among American bar and restaurant workers, all other workers, smokers and non smokers. Findings showed that by 1999, smoke free policy was widely accepted by two-thirds of adults, showing half favoring completely smoke free restaurants.

Hahn, E.J., Kelly, T., & Okeli, C. (2007) Secondhand Smoke and Nicotine Exposure: A Brief Review. Addictive Behaviors, 32(10), 1977-1988.This paper reviews a series of published studies that examine nicotine levels related to exposure to secondhand smoke. Evaluation of 22 field studies, that measure biological levels of nicotine associated with secondhand tobacco smoke, were conducted.

Hays, S. (2006) Secondhand Tobacco Smoke and Municipal Smoke free Ordinances: Attitudes of Restaurant and Bar Owners and Managers. Journal of Drug Education, 36(4) 279-295.This author reports on two Midwestern cities that conducted surveys on smoke free policy. These surveys revealed that over two-thirds (67.1%) of respondents supported a smoke free restaurant policy and over 40% supported a comprehensive ordinance that included bars. The author also touches on the business rights versus government health protection issue.

Halpern, B., & Rubinstein, M.L. (2005) Clear the Air: Adolescents perceptions of the Risks associated with secondhand smoke. Preventative Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to practice and Theory, 41(1), 16-22.
The authors examine whether adolescents risk perception estimates when exposed to secondhand smoke differed by actual smoking experience or adolescents intentions to smoke in the future. They also touch on the general basis of adolescent perception of tobacco use and dependence as a whole.

Samet, J. M. (2006) Smoking Bans Prevent Heart Attacks. American Heart Association Circulation, 114, 1450-1451. This author takes a look at the relation between smoking bans in public places and reported heart attacks. The area of study is Pueblo, Colorado. The assessment is conducted after the implementation of a smoke free ordinance. This ordinance included all workplaces, including bars and restaurants. Findings indicate a drop in heart attacks, post smoke free policy.

#3
Running head: Case Study One, Co-opetition and resistant innovations

Critique of a Case Study on the Global Wine Industry
Maria Medina
University of Wyoming

Critique of a Case Study on the Global Wine Industry

Within the scope of the diffusion of innovation theory, is the continuously diverse representation of innovations and whether they are adopted or resisted within communities. While this diversity spans across a never ending scale of internal and external affecting factors, Rogers (2003) states, An important factor regarding the adoption rate of an innovation is its compatibility with the values, beliefs, and past experiences of individuals in the social system (p. 4).

One such study expanded on the concept of resistant innovations and focused on innovations at the organization level. In Co-opetition for the Diffusion of Resistant Innovations: A case study in the Global Wine Industry by Rosanna Garcia and Tom Atkin (2005), these very concepts are put to use and investigated. In attempting to critique such a controversial case study, one must provide an overview of the study itself, present the problem, purpose and objectives of the study, complete a review of existing relative literature and touch on the findings of the study, in order to conclude in support or opposition of the study.

This case study, focusing on resistant innovations, is attempting to broaden the idea of innovation and incorporate competitive agencies at the organizational level, in order to reach the end result of community buy in or achieve a high rate of adoption. The most crucial issue lies not at the base of the innovation itself but at the steps of getting the innovation diffused. These authors chose to use the global wine industry as an example of the diversity that spans from community to community, in regards to getting an innovation through the diffusion process.

In this case the innovation is the screw cap closure versus the typical cork screw for wine products. Due to diverse procedural factors, this innovation diffused in some areas and not in others. The question then, was why did such a thing happen? The reasoning for this outcome came down to the diversity of the typical barriers that prohibit consumers from adopting innovations. The barriers mentioned included usage, value, risk, tradition and image barriers. While several of these are pertinent to the rate of adoption of an innovation, Rogers (2003) found that an idea that is incompatible with the values and norms of the social system will not be adopted as rapidly as an innovation that is compatible (p.15). So, here the case stands: a different approach to conquering the barriers of diffusion. The core concept of this study is for competing organizations to join together for an innovation that can benefit them all. The increased rate of adoption is the ultimate goal, which undoubtedly leads to success of the innovation.

The main problem of this study was the difference of adoption from community to community. While the authors of this study did attribute some of the resistance to cultural norms, the authors felt that the fluctuation of these rates of adoption, were based mainly on the co-opetition among the wineries. It seems as though these authors felt an importance in conducting such a study to offer alternative strategies for innovations that are perceived to have high risks and where consumers have uncertainty in adoption. The problem is clearly and concisely stated and agrees nicely with the title. This problem also seems to have educational significance. Rogers (2003) states, The greater the perceived relative advantage of an innovation, the more rapid its rate of adoption will be(p.15).

This study seemed to have the purpose of showing substantial evidence that co-opetition significantly increased the rate of adoption for the twist cap wine innovation. The purpose was clearly stated by the co-opetition strategy that was presented. This purpose definitely agrees with the problem and coincides with the title. This purpose also did seem to fall within the researcher's capabilities and resources.

The main objective of this study was to show that the increase in the rate of adoption in each community or country was heavily influenced by alliances that were or were not formed between competitors. This objective appeared to be more than achievable. The research question at hand was not only posed but tested between the communities. While, it may be more realistic to include several objectives in order to accomplish a purpose, this particular study focused on one main source.increasing the rate of adoption. Objectives unrelated to the purpose were not found in this study.

Existing literature has found that many organizations and individuals have a common problem of wanting to speed up the rate of diffusion for an innovation. In such a situation where competing organizations pair up to push an innovation, the rate of uncertainty would seem to lessen. A great example of this is the wine study. The common people would seem more likely to adopt an innovation if all of the distributors were doing the same thing. This appears to be an authoritative decision rather than a decision on the individual level. Rogers (2003) says, Generally, the fastest rate of adoption of innovations stems from authority decisions (p. 29). While several factors do come into play with the adoption of such innovations, we can not omit the importance of the communication channel from which it is diffused. It is true that both the mass media and interpersonal channels are said to have the most positive effect on reaching the greatest number of individuals and changing or forming attitudes toward a new idea. However, for this study, it seemed as though the pushing factor was not word of mouth but rather an educational campaign promoting a decision that had already been made.

The findings of this study show a direct relation between the co-opetition of organizations and the rate of adoption, increasing as a result. This finding is backed up with the finding that competitive co-opetition is shown to be an alternative strategy for uncertain market environments. These findings appeared to be objectively reported by the authors and backed up by test results. The tables and charts provided were well designed and most could stand alone. Figure 5 was the only chart that lacked a clear title and would be difficult to comprehend, standing alone. The narrative descriptions of these charts were clear and could stand alone as well. The statistical results presented did appear to be correct and match the measuring method.

In conclusion, I would support this study and the findings thereafter. The increase of rate of adoption does seem to increase based on the factors provided alone. The international survey demonstrated that the wine consumers in all three communities or countries were quite similar in purchasing processes. This left a strong focus on the fact that the differences between communities, was actually the process or the use of co-opetition. The conclusions of the study did relate to the literature included and were logically stated. While this case study could be dissected and analyzed for much longer, the main points have been concisely compiled and delivered for the purpose of this case study. Again, in critiquing such a controversial case study, an overview was provided of the case study itself, the problem, purpose and objectives of the study were presented, a review of existing relative knowledge was briefly touched on, the findings of the study were reviewed and a conclusion in support of the study was made.

References

Rogers, E., (2003). Diffusion of Innovations, Free Press: New York, NY

#5
Evolving with the Times in Visual Literacy
By
Maria Medina

Evolving with the Times in Visual Literacy

Becoming entangled in the whirlwind of multi media, one would have the choice of running away fearful of change or letting go, putting their arms out and gliding with the breeze of time.

Throughout history we have seen the rise and fall of mankind. Within this rise and fall, were decisions made based on learned theories, practices and beliefs. These theories, practices and beliefs were taught in one way or another. As time goes on the styles and techniques of teachings also change. Now, more than ever, society is faced with an ever growing technological increase, which includes the increase of visual stimuli. With the brain focusing so much attention on visual stimuli, it is almost as if instructors are now in competition with the different facets of multi media.

It is only through this thought process that alternate solutions are reviewed in attempts to grab and more importantly maintain a students focus or attention. In order to implement change in policy or curricula, research has to be done in the area.

The one question that seems to keep coming up is how to place a name on what needs to be researched. As a newer concept, Visual Literacy seems to be the perfect fit. While literacy is the ability to read and write, understand information, and express ideas both concretely and abstractly, adding visual to the term puts all of these competencies in the hands of visual perception. Within this paper we will explore the concept of multi media, the growing need for visual literacy in the classroom, and if visual literacy is actually needed to use learning technologies effectively.

Television not only has not been eliminated, but screens from television screens to computer screens now dominate our lives(Daley, 2003). Within the teachings of Elizabeth Daley, four concepts are discussed. The first is that multi media language of the screen has become the current vernacular. The second is that the multimedia language of the screen is capable of constructing complex meanings individual of text. Third, the multimedia language of the screen enables modes of thought, ways of communicating and conducting research, and methods of publication and teaching that are essentially different from those of text. Lastly, that after the prior three arguments, those who are really literate in the twenty-first century will be those who learn to both read and write the multi media language of the screen.

While in depth research of these four principles are being conducted at the Institute for Multi Media Literacy at the University of California, other authors explore deeper into the concept of what we are seeing.

In one sense, a film can be seen as a work designed to generate certain desired emotional responses in viewers(Berger, 2008). We, the viewers are at the mercy of the creators of such visual stimuli. Thus, seeing what they believe and believing what we see.

If in fact we are at the level of complete indulgence into multi media and we are in fact eating up everything the media has to give us, should we not mimic these same ideas when teaching anything from history to life skills in the classroom setting for all age groups?

We have discussed the fact that with massive advances in technology there will also be a significant increase in visual literacy. It has been said that the average American youngster will see around 500,000 television commercials between the ages of three and eighteen. With this knowledge we can safely assert that television plays a substantial source of values to which the young are exposed.

The real question is: do we really need visual literacy in the classroom? Current research at Brigham Young University determined that visual literacy is important to Engineering, Nursing, Business, Social and Family Sciences, and Fine Arts and Communications(Christopherson, 1995).

There have been years and years put into researching and experiencing how to manipulate different elements of design. These include color, line, shape, value, texture, light, sound and movement. All of these components are fit together into a puzzle to try and gain an emotional response from the viewer. Still, in the middle of all of this research it is only until recently that visual literacy has even been considered as an option to basic or general education.

In Towards a Psychology of Art, Arnheim states visual literacy is the attribute we would hope to find in every well-educated adult in our society, because our culture is increasingly represented and perceived in visual terms(Arnheim, 1967). Christopherson adds that there are four key elements in being visually literate. The first is to be able to interpret, understand and appreciate the meaning of visual messages. The second is to be able to communicate more effectively through applying the basic principles and concepts of visual design. The third concept is that one would be able to produce visual messages using the computer and other technology. Lastly, one would use visual thinking to conceptualize solutions to problems (Christopherson, 1995).

With these four principles in mind, one can not help but believe that this concept of applying visual literacy in the classroom can only help improve the learning process all together.

While there are several concepts and findings from different scholars, we ultimately have the final decision as educators whether or not to incorporate visual literacy into our teachings. The question is brought up then of if we really need visual literacy to use learning technologies effectively? So, without trying to be repetitive, it is known that visuals are increasing and being delivered among a wide range of media.

One of the greatest technological impacts on both further and higher education management and academic activities has been the world wide web and web-related technologies, which are capable of delivering and supporting vast amounts of visual data(Sims, 2002). While traditional forms of media and delivery methods are crucial to the learning process, it is apparent that there is a high demand for training in the learning technologies department. Within this department there would be a large demand for information and training in the integration of such programs into academic processes and creation of resources found online.

Sims conducted a workshop entitled Designing Online Learning Materials. Within this study, the design of electronic resources and hands-on web page construction incorporating visual elements was evaluated. The two core principles of the study included visual literacy and effective visual communication. Sims findings are as follows: When asked what participants hoped to gain from the workshop, typical answers were to be able to make materials less boring, to make use of image collections, to find out how to create or find images and put them in materials and to improve appearance and navigation of materials(Sims, 2002). The ultimate request was to be able to have more hands on opportunities and time to learn how to use programs to do such. Sims concludes that it can clearly be argued that to use information and communication technology effectively, both tutors and students need to be empowered to communicate visually.

Visual intake has no doubtedly become one of the more popular forms of mental stimulation. Throughout time, population will increase and technological efficiencies will as well. In the ever growing demand for quick and easy answers in such a fast paced society, we must take into account how we are going to keep up with this growth. Although we are not at an alarming point at this time, we definitely could end up that way. We have taken a quick look at the concept of multi media, the growing need for visual literacy in the classroom and whether or not visual literacy is actually needed to use learning technologies effectively. After conducting research on the topic, it can be concluded that visual literacy is in fact needed to use learning technologies effectively. Hopefully, with further study in the area, visual literacy will become a part of the process and not just a concept.



References

1. Arnheim, R.A. (1969) in Visual Thinking Berkeley, California: University of California Press.

2. Berger, Arthur Asa, 2008 in Seeing is Believing. (New York: McGraw and Hill, 2008).

3. Christopherson, Jerry T., 1995 in The Growing Need for visual Literacy at the University. (U.S. Department of Education.com)

4. Daley, Elizabeth, 2003 in Expanding the Concept of literacy. ( 2learn.ca)

5. Sims, Ellen (2002) in Visual Literacy: Do we need it to use learning technologies effectively . (United Kingdom, University of Bristol Studies).